1
Q
Idealism
A
- Concept by Plato
- All natural phenomena are imperfect representations of a true essence in an ideal unseen world
2
Q
Aristotle’s belief regarding evolution
A
- Expanded on Plato’s Idealism
- Static world in which a Deity created fixed essences –> templates for all species
- Scala Naturae –> least perfect to most perfect form (inanimate matter –> barely animate –> plants, invertebrates –> “higher forms”
- Christianity expanded on it –> Great Chain of Being
- Permanent and unchanging (since change implies imperfection in original)
3
Q
Carolus Linnaeus
A
- Father of Taxonomy
- Systema Naturae
- Purpose of classification –> discover pattern among God’s creations
4
Q
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
A
- Philosophie Zoologique
- Combined spontaneous generation w/ mechanism of biological change
- Species change over time into new species
- Inheritance of acquired characteristics –> “use and disuse” (e.g. giraffe’s necks are long because ancestor’s stretched to reach food)
5
Q
Erasmus Darwing
A
- Darwin’s grandfather
- Proposed that species or modified descendants of earlier forms
6
Q
Georges Cuvier
A
- Father of comparative anatomy, paleontology
- Proponent of catastrophism
7
Q
Catastrophism
A
Widely held belief that Earth’s physical features primarily modelled by great catastrophes resulting from forces that no longer operate today
8
Q
Catastrophism and Christianity
A
Attempt to reconcile geological history w/ age of the Earth according to the bible
9
Q
James Hutton
A
- Father of modern geology
- Principle of Uniformitarianism
10
Q
Principle of Uniformitarianism
A
Geological processes we see operating today are the same as those that operated in the past
11
Q
Charles Lyell
A
- “Principles of Geology”
- Presented evidence for uniformitarianism –> ended era of catastrophism
12
Q
Charles Darwin
A
- His examination of finches in Galapagos islands –> idea that species can change
- Struggled w/ ideas including Lamarckism –> failed to explain adaptation
13
Q
Alfred Russel Wallace
A
Wallace independently arrived at similar idea to Darwin’s natural selection
14
Q
Darwin’s evolutionary theory
A
Two major tenets:
1. All species, living an extinct, have descended w/out interruption from one or a few original forms of life
2. Theory of natural selection (very different from Lamarck’s)
15
Q
Johann Gregor Mendel
A
- “Theory of the Gene”
- Provided basis of modern genetics
- Initially seen as incompatible w/ natural selection but later shown to be compatible
16
Q
Modern Synthesis/Neo-Darwininan Synthesis
A
- Selection acts on heritable variation
- Consistent w/ evolution of taxa at all levels + fossil record observations
17
Q
Haldane, Fisher, Wright
A
- Founders of pop genetics
- Mathematical description of the way genes behave in pops
18
Q
Intelligent Design Theory
A
- “Scientific theory” to explain biological origins + complexity alt to Darwinian Evolution
- Biological complexity in nature cannot be explained by Darwinian evolution –> is consistent w/ “intelligent design”
19
Q
Scientific fact
A
- An observation that has been repeatedly confirmed + for all practical purposes is accepted as “true”
- Truth in science is never final –> what is accepted as fact today may be modified or discarded tomorrow
20
Q
Scientific hypothesis
A
- Tentative statement about natural worlds leading to deductions/predictions that CAN BE TESTED
- If deductions are verified –> becomes more probable that hypothesis is correct
- if deductions are incorrect –> original hypothesis is abandoned or modified
21
Q
Scientific law
A
A descriptive generalization about how some aspect of natural world behaves under SPECIFIED CIRCUMSTANCES
22
Q
Scientific theory
A
- The goal of science
- A well substantiated explaination of some aspect of natural world that incorporates facts, laws, and TESTED hypothesis
- Key elements of scientific theories –> must be FALSIFIABLE and INTERNALLY CONSISTENT
23
Q
What are the two key elements of scientific theories?
A
Must be FALSIFIABLE and INTERNALLY CONSISTENT
24
Q
Evolution as a scientific fact and theory
A
- Fact: repeatedly confirmed (genetics, physiology, geology, phylogenetics, direct observations)
- Theory: provides explanation
25
Spectrum of special creation to evolution
Special creation
- Flat Earthism
- Geocentricism
- Young-Earth Creationism
- Gap Creationism (old earth)
- Day-age Creationism
- Intelligent Design Theory
- Theistic Evolution
- Materialistic Evolution
Evolution
26
How did ID begin?
Idea that if there is an eye, there was an eye maker (creator or designer)
27
Micheal Behe and irreducible complexity
- "Linchpin" of ID Theory today
- Single system composed of several well matched, interacting parts that contribute to basic function
- If any one part is removed, the system effectively ceases functioning
28
Behe and the flagellum
- Behe states that flagellum is irreducibly complex b/c can't function w/out any one of its proteins --> therefore could not arise by selection (must have arisen by design)
- BUT things don't need functional precursors
- Flagellum is not irreducibly complex (typical vs more "simple" Eel sperm flagellum)
29
Why is ID Theory not falsifiable
- It presupposes that any complex structure is result of intelligent designer --> BUT offers no test of this
- Does NOT offer a method by which this can be tested
30
Internal inconsistency in ID Theory
- If we observe a "complex" biological structure, then it invokes the necessity of something even more complex to explain it --> flawed logic
- Also --> lousy designs --> e.g. human appendix
31
Why can't ID Theory be considered a scientific theory?
- No tested hypothesis
- No data, observation, experimentation
- Internally inconsistent
- Cannot be falsified by scientific means
32
What is ID Theory, really?
- Elaborate ruse built w/ terms meant to confuse + mislead the public
- Objective of introducing religious instruction into public school science classes
33
Misconceptions about science and evolution: God, faith in science and evolution, evolution as justification of immoral behaviour
- Science + evolution have NOTHING TO SAY about existence of God or sprituality
- Science (+ hence evolution) IS NOT a faith (acceptance in absence of evidence)
- Science (+ hence evolution) DOES NOT directly inform about moral or ethical questions --> instead, informs about the way the natural world is (not the way it should be)
34
The Naturalistic Fallacy
The way that things are is the way that they should be --> FALSE
35
Evolution (Darwinian)
Descent w/ modification
36
Homology
- Similarity resulting from common ancestry (the same origin), often despite differences in function
- e.g. tetrapods
37
Analogy
- Similarity in function, but not having the same evolutionary origin
- e.g. wings of bat and bird
38
Other definition of evolution (relevant to pop genetics)
Change in pop allele frequencies
39
What are the 10 lines of evidence supporting evolution?
1. Selective breeding experiments
2. Direct observation of evolutionary change
3. Vestigial structures
4. Lab experiments
5. Evidence from natural pops
6. Fossil record
7. Transitional forms
8. Homology
9. Age of the Earth
10. Correspondence among datasets (geological and biological)
40
1. Selective breeding
e.g. Researchers selectively bred mice for ability to run on exercise wheel for 24 generations --> selected group ran 2.78 times as far each day vs control group
41
Microevolution
- Small evol changes within species or pops
- Over time, microevolution results in both speciation, as well as macroevolutionary differences
42
Speciation
- Lineages split + diverge
- An ancestral species can give rise to 2 or more descendent/daughter species
43
Macroevolution
- Larger phenotypic changes sufficient to place an organism in a different higher-level taxon (e.g. phylum)
44
2. Direct observation of change (evidence for descent w/ modification)
Field mustard plant
- Wild pop evolved an earlier avg flowering time following drought
- Rain into late spring --> delayed flowering so they can grow larger + produce more seeds
- Tested on confirmed by researchers
Apple maggot fly
- Apples ripen earlier than hawthorn fruits --> evolved considerable heritable differences as a result
- Apple and hawthorn maggot flies are now incipient species (ALMOST completed speciation)
45
Incipient species
Lineages that have ALMOST completed speciation
46
3. Vestigial structures + organs (evidence for descent w/ modification)
- Reduced + useless in organism, but was useful in ancestral organism
- e.g. vestigial limbs in royal python; vestigial wings in brown kiwi; coccyx and arrector pili muscle (causes goosebumps) in humans; marine stickleback fishes reducing pelvic armour after invading freshwater
47
4. Evidence from lab experiments
- Bacteriophage
- Mutant + wildtype strains can exchange genes when they infect the same host
- Mutant evolved to become a specialist --> no longer shared host --> therefore mutant and wildtype are now isolated (can't infect same host + exchange genes)
48
What is a species?
- Widely debated
- Group of interbreeding natural pops that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
49
5. Evidence from natural pops
- Sticklebacks in 4 different bodies of water speciated based on food source (filter feeder or benthic)
- Different mating calls in Siberian Greenish Warbler --> ring species (gap in ring, adj pops can interbreed except for original pop w/ end of ring since too different)
50
The 4 stages of speciation
1. Single variable pop
2. Distinguishable but interbreeding pops
3. Distinct pops w/ limited interbreeding
4. Reproductively isolated pops = species
51
6. Fossil record
- See changes in organisms that have inhabited the Earth throughout fossil record
- There are strong geographic patterns wrt similarity of orgs within fossil record + those that exists today
52
Paleontology
Study of fossils + prehistoric life
53
Who was the first to document the extinction of animals?
Georges Cuvier
54
The Law of Succession
- Expect if evol has happened
- Fossils in given geographic region are more closely related to the extant fauna of that region than they are to organisms in a different geographic region
55
Phylogeny
A HYPOTHESIS of ancestor/descendent relationships
56
7. Transitional forms (evidence for common ancestry)
- Share charactaristics
- e.g. Blennies: common aquatic ancestor: amphibious has intermediate characteristics of fully aquatic and terrestial form
e.g. Archaeopteryx: common ancestor of dino and birds --> Archaeopteryx has wings that allow for gliding (not fully terrestrial like dino, but also no powered flight like modern bird)
- e.g. Turtles: Odontochelys has intermediately fanned out shoulder blades, ribs not as fanned out (amniotes have ribs that curve around body below shoulder blades + turtles have fanned out ribs that slightly cover shoulder blades)
57
8. Homology (evidence for common ancestry)
- Similarities among organisms resulting from common ancestry (studied via comparative anatomy, embryology, physiology, genetics)
- Includes structural, developmental, + genetic homologies
58
Structural homologies
- e.g. Limbs in mammals --> humerus, radius + ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
- Homology across human, mole, horse, dolphin, bat
e.g. Plant reproductive structures
59
Developmental homologies
- e.g. pharyngeal pouch + tail in human embryo
- In humans: pharyngeal pouch --> middle ear, etc.
- In fish: pharyngeal pouch --> gills
- e.g. scrotal outpocket leads to weakness in body wall --> can lead to intestinal hernia
60
Genetic homologies
- Pseudogenes --> mRNA reverse transcription + insertion at another locus (non-functional since processed mRNA had no promoter or introns) --> accumulates mutations faster than rest of genome (no functional contraints)
- The older the pseudogene, the more differences between them --> can create phylogenetic tree with distribution of psuedogenes
- rRNA sequences are some of the most conserved a cross wide # of different taxa --> used to build tree of life
61
Evolution and homology
-Evolution produces nested sets or traits/homologies --> phylogenetic trees
- Basis of entire taxonomic system
62
9. Age of the Earth
- Uniformitarianism vs catastrophism
- Considerable time req. to build mountains + create geological strata observed in nature --> 6000 y.o. Earth + catastrophism are not possibilities
63
Principle of Superposition
Younger geological layers sit on top of older ones
64
Principle of Original Horizontality
- Lava + sedimentary rocks were originally laid down in horizontal position
- Any warping/bending occurred after it was laid down
65
Principle of Cross Cutting Relationships
Rocks that intrude into other rocks are younger than their host rocks
66
Principle of Inclusions
Boulders/other fragments found in a body of rock are older than their host rocks
67
Principle of Faunal Succession
More recent fossils are more similar to existing life forms than older fossils --> DISTINCT FROM LAW OF SUCCESSION
68
Law of Succession vs Principle of Faunal Succession
- Law of Succession: fossils in given geographical region are more similar to extant fauna of that geographical region vs organisms in another geographical region
- Principle of Faunal Succession: more recent fossils are more similar to existing life forms vs older fossils
69
Radiometric dating
- Ratio of parent to daughter isotope in a sample of rock --> time elapsed since the rock formed can be calculated
- Can put actual (absolute) dates instead of relative
- More than one isotope system can be used on the same rocks to provide an independent check on the date
70
Assumptions and issues with radiometric dating
- Assume that ratio of parent-to-daughter isotopes is known
- Problem: in Earth's early period, everything was molten --> results in underestimate
- Problem: a lot of Earth's rocks have been subducted + destroyed due to plate movement --> today's rocks are younger than Earth
71
How old is the Earth?
- 4.6 billion years --> estimate based on dating things in our solar system (assumes it all formed at the same time)
- Oldest rocks: 4.2 billion years
72
How long has life been on Earth?
At least 3.2 billion years
73
Potassium-argon dating
- Widest dating range: 100,000-4.6 billion years
- Used for potassium-rich minerals such as biotite + muscovite, volcanic rock
74
Carbon-14 dating
- 100-100,000 years (effective dating)
- Used for any carbon-bearing material such as bones, wood, shells, cloth, and animal droppings
75
Other radiometric dating methods
- 10 million-4.6 billion years (effecting dating)
- Used for a variety of materials
76
10. Correspondence among scientific data sets (geological + biological)
- Plate tectonics --> continental drift
- Continental drift + fossil record --> strong evidence that Earth + its life forms have changed through time
77
Theory of Evolution
- Provides logical explanation for wide range of observations + makes predictions that can be tested scientifically
- Species change through time
- Species are related through descent + common ancestry
BIOL 359
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