1 Flashcards

Question

Axons

Answer 1

these are long, thin fibers that transmit signals away from the soma to other neurons (and muscles and glands).

Answer 2

insulating material that encases the axons, helping to speed up transmission of the signals/messages sent along the axons. A glial cell known as the Schwann Cell helps create the MS. An autoimmune disease known as Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is the result of the the immune system destroying the myelin sheaths.

Answer 3

the clustered end of an axon, which secretes neurotransmitters.

Answer 4

chemical messengers that activate neighboring neurons.

Answer 5

the junction where the information of one cell is passed on to, or received by, another cell.

Answer 6

a neural impulse / electrical charge that travels down the axon, away from the cell body. Excitatory impulses outnumber inhibitory impulses.

Answer 7

The nervous system also includes non-neuron cells, called glia (plural, pronounced GLEE-uh). They are the most abundant cells in the nervous system. Glial cells perform many important functions that keep the nervous system working properly. These include the following: Support and Structure; hold neurons in place Protect Neurons; insulate with myelin Provide Nutrients Repair and Restore neuron function Waste Management;trim out & eliminate dead neurons Regulate neurotransmitters

Answer 8

Neurons communicate with each other through firing, once the threshold is met. - When an action potential reaches the end of an axon (called the axon terminal), it triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters into the synapse. - The neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the next neuron, allowing the signal to continue, until it reaches its final destination.

Answer 9

After neurotransmitters do their job, they need to be cleared from the synapse. -Reuptake is the process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron. -This recycling ensures that the signal isn't ongoing forever.

Answer 10

Neurons are like tiny batteries and they have a resting potential. - This resting potential is around -70 millivolts (mV), meaning the inside of the neuron is more negative compared to the outside. More negative ions inside the cell during resting potential! - This difference in charge is maintained by ions (electrically charged atoms), like sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), moving in and out of the neuron through special channels in the cell membrane. -The cell membrane is permeable, meaning the ions within the cell can pass through the membrane, or be penetrated by the ions that are outside of the cell.

Answer 11

- The Action Potential is a neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon. - It occurs when a neuron receives a strong enough signal from its dendrites. - At the beginning of an action potential, there's a sudden rush of sodium ions into the neuron, making the inside more positive. - Then, potassium ions leave the neuron, bringing it back to a negative charge. - This sequence of events generates the action potential, which travels rapidly along the axon.

Answer 12

-Neurons communicate with each other through firing. - When an action potential reaches the end of an axon (called the axon terminal), it triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters into the synapse. - The neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the next neuron, allowing the signal to continue.

Answer 13

- After neurotransmitters do their job, they need to be cleared from the synapse. - Reuptake is the process where some neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron. - This recycling ensures that the signal isn't ongoing forever.

Answer 14

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers produced by neurons (nerve cells) in the nervous system. These messengers direct their messages to other neurons, muscles and / or glands of the Endocrine System. Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory (and, sometimes, both!). Excitatory neurotransmitters promote the generation of action potentials in the receiving neuron. Inhibitory neurotransmitters block or prevent the chemical messages from being passed along any farther. They prevent action potentials. Remember, an action potential is a brief electrical charge (neural impulse) that travels down an axon, and it is described as an all-or-nothing event, because the message either gets passed along to an end result or “action” or it doesn't. Think of rain as an excitatory transmitter and you possibly getting wet as the action potential. The reason why we say possibly is because you have access to an umbrella which acts as an inhibitory transmitter by preventing you from getting wet!

Answer 15

These are chemicals produced by the body, to transmit signals between neurons. Glutamate, acetylcholine and dopamine are examples of excitatory transmitters, since they promote the firing of action potentials, leading to increased neural activity.

Answer 16

These are neurotransmitters, such as GABA and Serotonin, that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential. These chemicals have a calming or inhibitory effect on neural activity.

Answer 17

is a molecule (drug) that binds to a receptor, increasing a neurotransmitter’s action. An agonist mimics or copies what a neurotransmitter does. An agonist can act like an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter. Opiates (Oxycodone, Morphine, Heroin, Fentanyl) are examples of agonists, since they bind to, and activate, opioid receptors.

Answer 18

is a molecule that decreases (inhibits) or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter. Naltrexone and Naloxone are examples of antagonists, because they block opiates from binding to receptors. These drugs are given for opiate overdoses.

Answer 19

enables muscle action, learning, and memory. If your body does not produce enough acetylcholine, you become at risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease and myasthenia gravis. Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which antibodies destroy the communication between nerves and muscle, resulting in weakness of the skeletal muscles. Acetylcholine (ACh) is an excitatory neurotransmitter

Answer 20

impacts one’s hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. Not enough puts one at risk for depression. Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Answer 21

influences movement, learning, attention and emotion and motivation. Oversupply is linked with schizophrenia, obesity, and addictive behaviors. Undersupply is linked to tremors, decreased mobility and Parkinson’s Disease. Dopamine is a special type of neurotransmitter because it acts as both an excitatory and an inhibitory neurotransmitter. The specific effect of dopamine depends on the location in the brain and the type of neurons it acts on, contributing to its complex role in functions such as movement, motivation, reward, and mood regulation.

Answer 22

helps control one’s alertness and arousal. Undersupply is linked to depressed mood. Norepinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter.

Answer 23

is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. An undersupply is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Answer 24

is a major excitatory neurotransmitter, which plays a key role in memory. An oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraine headaches and seizures.

Answer 25

are the body’s natural opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasurable feelings of euphoria. An oversupply via opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural production of endorphins, leading to decreased pain tolerance.

Answer 26

is involved in immune response and the perception of pain.

Answer 27

is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system different. It’s made up of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones (the chemical messengers of the endocrine system) into the bloodstream. The endocrine system, in conjunction with the nervous system, allows our bodies to function properly and maintain homeostasis. The two systems (endocrine and nervous) send messages throughout the body. The endocrine system does so by sending chemicals known as hormones through the bloodstream to various receptors. The endocrine glands create these hormones. These messages, when compared to the messages of the nervous system , are slower moving, but longer lasting. The nervous system creates messages via fast-acting nerve cells known as neurons. These messages are transmitted by electrochemical messengers known as neurotransmitters.

Answer 28

are specialized organs that produce and secrete substances such as hormones throughout the body, to help with various physiological functions.

Answer 29

descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it (Hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland). The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control all the other glands of the endocrine system. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone and Vasopressin, which regulates the circadian rhythm (24-hour cycles that are part of the body's internal clock), and the body’s internal temperature.

Answer 30

is a hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin is often referred to as the love hormone, because it is responsible for producing positive emotions, such as trust and happiness, when a person is attracted to another. It is produced when bonding with someone we care for, it enables orgasm, and it is also present during birth, causing contractions of the uterus.

Answer 31

the sleep hormone, is produced by the pineal gland and helps with the regulation of your sleep cycles (REM & NREM).

Answer 32

are produced by the adrenal glands as part of our fight-or-flight response, and cause an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

Answer 33

Oxytocin and Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are also produced as neurotransmitters of the nervous system.

Answer 34

are chemical substances that alter the brain and cause changes in perceptions and moods.

Answer 35

are disorders characterized by continued substance use despite the development of life disruptions resulting from the use of the substances.

Answer 36

of psychoactive drugs includes depressants, stimulants and hallucinogens.

Answer 37

is the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of the drug, requiring the user to take larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.

Answer 38

is the commonly used term for compulsive substance use and dysfunctional behavior patterns, like gambling and sex addiction, that continue despite harmful consequences.

Answer 39

is both the discomfort and distress that follow, when one discontinues the use of, or engagement in, an addictive drug or behavior.

Answer 40

Depressant Initial high, followed by relaxation & disinhibition Depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions

Answer 41

Depressant Rush of euphoria, relief from pain Depressed physiology; loss of natural endorphin production

Answer 42

Stimulant Increased alertness and wakefulness Anxiety, restlessness, insomnia in high doses

Answer 43

Stimulant Arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being Heart disease, cancer

Answer 44

Stimulant Rush of euphoria, confidence, energy Cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash

Answer 45

Stimulant Euphoria, alertness, energy Irritability, insomnia,hypertension, seizures

Answer 46

Stimulant; Mild Hallucinogen Emotional elevation, disinhibition Dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning

Answer 47

Hallucinogen Visual “Trip” Risk of panic attacks

Answer 48

Mild Hallucinogen Enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation Impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders

Answer 49

Composed of all of the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body, enabling communication between and among the brain, spinal cord, muscles, organs, and sensory receptors. Subdivided into the Somatic Nervous System & the Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 50

Somatic Nervous System is made up of all the nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles (the muscles we can control) and sensory receptors. These nerves carry information from our sensory organs and receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints to the Central Nervous System, and from the CNS to the muscles. There are two kinds of nerve fibers in the SNS: Afferent Nerve Fibers and Efferent Nerve Fibers Afferent Nerve Fibers are sensory nerve fibers that carry information in to the CNS from the PNS (Afferent = In; Approach). Efferent Nerve Fibers are motor nerve fibers that carry information out of the CNS to the PNS (Efferent = Out; Exit).

Answer 51

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is made up of the nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles (digestive, respiratory, reproductive systems, etc.) and glands. It controls automatic, involuntary functions, such as heart rate, digestion and perspiration. Examples of the ANS would include the physical responses you have to being scared, such as elevated heart rate, rapid breathing and sweaty palms. The ANS is subdivided into two branches: The Sympathetic Division & The Parasympathetic Division Sympathetic Division creates the “fight or flight” response. When activated, heart rate and respiration increase; blood drains from the periphery in case of injury. Parasympathetic Division conserves bodily resources, saving and storing energy. Heart rate slows & blood pressure drops. “Rest and Digest”

Answer 52

There are numerous ways in which scientists and researchers have helped figure out what the brain is comprised of and how these different parts and regions affect thoughts and behavior. While there is a tremendous amount that has been learned since the dawn of humankind, there is still much more to be learned. The following are the common methods used today to help us better understand the brain and its functions: Case Studies Lesions Autopsies Neuroimaging Techniques

Answer 53

One of the initial ways scientists came to better understand how the brain operated was through case studies. A famous historical example is that of Phineas Gage. Phineas Gage was working as a railroad construction foreman in 1848 when an iron rod was driven through his skull due to an explosion. Gage survived the accident, but severely damaged the frontal lobes of his brain, causing personality changes and emotional disturbances. His experience makes him a key historical figure in the study of brain function and behavior. Gage's case is considered to be one of the first examples of scientific evidence indicating that damage to the frontal lobes may alter personality, emotions and social interactions. Prior to this case, the frontal lobes were considered silent structures, without function and unrelated to human behavior. Scottish neurologist, David Ferrier, was motivated by this fact to investigate the role of frontal lobes in brain function. Ferrier removed the frontal lobes in monkeys and noted that there were no major physiological changes, but the character and behavior of the animals were altered. Phineas Gage's great legacy - PMC (nih.gov)

Answer 54

In 1865, after having studied a number of cases, Paul Broca concluded that damage to a specific region of the left, frontal lobe led to a type of aphasia (impairment of language) that has come to be known as Broca’s Aphasia (AKA non-fluent aphasia). Broca’s aphasia results in an individual having difficulty with speech production. Some key components of Broca’s Aphasia include the following: Difficulty forming grammatically correct sentences. Limited spoken and written vocabulary and reduced word fluency. Struggles with articulation and pronunciation. Short, telegraphic speech that may lack function words like "is" or "the." Frustration with, and awareness of, one’s own language difficulties. Comprehension of language(listening and reading) remains largely unchanged. Although comprehension of language may remain intact, the ability to express oneself through speech is significantly impaired. People with Broca's aphasia often understand what is being said to them but have difficulty responding effectively. Writing ability is also similarly affected, but reading comprehension remains largely intact. Broca’s Aphasia is primarily an impairment of expressive language, not receptive language. There is an impairment interfering with speech production. In its simplest form, Broca’s Aphasia is an impairment of one’s ability to speak.

Answer 55

In 1874, after having studied a number of cases, Carl Wernicke concluded that damage to a specific region of the left temporal lobe led to the development of a type of aphasia that has come to be known as Wernicke’s Aphasia (AKA Fluent Aphasia). Wernicke’s Aphasia results in an individual having difficulty with comprehending and forming meaningful speech. Some key components of Wernicke's Aphasia include the following: Impaired language comprehension: Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia struggle to understand spoken and written language. They do not realize that they are not making sense of what they hear or read (reduced self-awareness), nor do they realize that what they say is nonsensical to others. Fluent but nonsensical speech: People with Wernicke's aphasia often produce fluent, grammatically correct speech. However, the content of their speech is typically nonsensical and may include made-up words or incoherent sentences. Wernicke’s region is the area responsible for language comprehension, not the motor ability to physically speak.

Answer 56

Los Angeles neurosurgeons Joseph Bogen and Philip Vogel performed surgeries for treating severe epileptic seizures, by severing the bundle of nerves (Corpus Callosum) joining the two hemispheres. These surgeries resulted in Roger Sperry and Paul Gazzaniga having human subjects to study. The work of all four focused on brain lateralization and communication between the hemispheres. The first intentional corpus callosotomy to treat epileptic seizures was performed by William Van Wagenen in 1940, at the Neurological Institute in Montreal, Canada.

Answer 57

A lesion study of the brain involves deliberately creating brain injuries, or lesions, in order to understand the functions of specific brain regions. Surgical removal, electrical stimulation, or chemical treatment of specific sections of the brain are ways in which researchers can better understand brain functioning. By observing how these lesions impact behavior, cognition, or other functions, scientists can gain insights into the roles of different brain areas in processes like memory, language, or motor control. Lesion studies are crucial for mapping the brain's functional areas and understanding how damage or dysfunction in specific regions affects an individual's abilities and behavior. For ethical reasons, lesion studies are mostly conducted on animals. When performed on humans, informed consent must be given and there needs to be a strong, compelling medical rationale behind the lesion study. Additionally, most lesion studies performed on humans are done with patients who have already suffered damage to the area of the brain being lesioned.

Answer 58

Autopsies are examinations of an individual’s body, after they have died, to determine the cause of death. By examining the brain, which may have been injured due to accident or disease, autopsies give insight into the effects of the disease or damage, which resulted in or played a large part leading to the death of the individual.

Answer 59

Electrodes placed on scalp, measure electrical activity in neurons Electroencephalogram studies the brain by recording electrical activity of the neurons firing (brain waves) via electrodes that have been placed on the scalp. This is often used for sleep studies and studies of seizure disorders. Advantages of this technique include being non-invasive and can help identify abnormal electrical signals. Disadvantages include specifying the brain area that is malfunctioning.

Answer 60

A head coil records magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical currents. MEG (magnetoencephalography) is a noninvasive test that neurologists and neurosurgeons use to help plan brain surgeries for epilepsy and tumor removal. MEG maps out the sensory areas of your brain and can pinpoint the exact location where seizures originate. Brain cells (neurons) interact with each other by generating tiny electrical voltages. The flow of electrical current produces a magnetic field. MEG detects, records, and analyzes these magnetic fields using sensitive magnetic sensors.

Answer 61

Radioactive glucose is used evaluate the brain’s activity and blood flow, tracking specific regions of the brain, and detailing which areas are active at any given moment. PET scans use radioactive glucose to evaluate the brain’s activity and blood flow. Radioactive glucose is tracked in specific regions of the brain, detailing which areas of the brain are active at any given moment, in real time. While the person is engaged in a task, the associated areas of greatest activity in the brain will light up in red on the scan, while the least active areas will be blue. Activation in between the extremes will vary in colors. Limitations and concerns with this kind of imaging include difficulty in pinpointing the precise location of activity, as well as radiation exposure.

Answer 62

X-rays of the head generate images that may locate damage to the brain. Computed Tomography is a series of detailed X-rays (images) of the body and brain. These scans can be used to detect damage to the brain and tumors. This focuses on the structural damage, not functional damage. It does, however, involve low levels of radiation exposure.

Answer 63

Provide detailed images of the body and brain by using magnetic impulses. MRIs provided detailed images of the body and brain by using magnetic impulses. These images are of greater detail than typical x-rays and CT scans. The MRI takes multiple images of the brain and pieces them together like a movie. Think flipbook for this, as well. This records images, but not activity. There is no radiation involved, but it cannot be used on patients with any metal implants, due to the strong magnetic fields. Individuals must also remain still in a small, confined space for extended periods of time.

Answer 64

Measures blood flow and oxygen flow in different parts of the brain. It is scanning brain activity, or function, by comparing continuous MRI scans. FMRIs use an MRI machine to measure blood flow and oxygen flow in different parts of the brain. It is scanning brain activity, or function.

Answer 65

The Central Nervous System (CNS) is comprised of your Brain and Spinal Cord. The Spinal Cord is the long, thin network of nerves that extends from the brainstem to the lower back. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column. The spinal column is the bony structure composed of (usually) 33 vertebrae, which are in turn separated and cushioned by intervertebral discs, which act as shock absorbers, while giving the column its flexibility. The Brainstem connects the spinal cord with the brain and includes the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. It regulates autonomic activities. Damage to the brainstem often leads to death.

Answer 66

Includes the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons

Answer 67

Controls muscle tone and balance. Coordination center. Latin for Little brain. Also helps us with tasks that take practice to master, such as riding a bicycle or playing a musical instrument. Damage to this area of the brain would lead to actions and movements that appear clumsy, like an intoxicated individual trying to walk a straight line. The cerebellum helps the body remember how to perform motor actions. Think muscle-memory.

Answer 68

Controls involuntary (autonomic) actions like breathing, digestion, heart-rate, and blood pressure.

Answer 69

The word pons is Latin for bridge.” The Pons contains bundles of nerves that help with voluntary movements, as well as sleeping and dreaming. It connects the medulla with the cerebellum.

Answer 70

The major components of the midbrain include the tectum and the tegmentum, as well as the Reticular Formation and the Reticular Formation. The tectum serves as the roof of Midbrain, and the tegmentum as its floor. Together, the two govern visual and auditory reflexes, such as orienting to a site or sound. Think about how your react when someone you don’t see calls out to you. Reticular Formation: a network of nerves that goes through the brainstem to the thalamus, and is involved in arousal, alertness, and the sleep-wake cycles. Damage to this area can lead to coma.

Answer 71

Largest part of the brain, responsible for voluntary functions. It allows for and regulates complex thoughts and behaviors. It contains the limbic system, which is associated with emotions and drives, and the cerebrum, which is responsible for higher-level cognition (creativity, problem solving, linguistic capabilities, future planning) and fine motor control. This is the part of the brain that receives sensory information (Afferent Nerves) and sends out motor information (Efferent Nerves).

Answer 72

The Limbic System is composed of the Thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus (and the pituitary gland!).

Answer 73

relays sensory information (except for smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex; receives and directs sensory information from visual and auditory systems of the brain.

Answer 74

is involved in processing and integrating memories. It serves to help create memories, but does not store them. Damage to the hippocampus does not eliminate existing memories, but it does prevent the formation of new memories. This is a condition known as anterograde amnesia.

Answer 75

This is connected to our expressions of anger, frustration, and fear. Sends signals to the hypothalamus when the fight or flight system is to be activated.

Answer 76

Directs the activation of the sympathetic nervous system for fight or flight response, and the endocrine system, by regulating the pituitary gland. It also controls our bodily temperature and water balances, as well as hunger and sex drives. It is vital in maintaining homeostasis. Researchers Olds and Milner (1954) discovered in studies with rats that this region of the brain is linked to emotion and rewards. Reward Centers / Reward Pathways The hypothalamus is broken down into the lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalamus, which work together for regulating eating behaviors and body weight. The Lateral Hypothalamus sends signals to eat when we are hungry(hormone Ghrelin); The Ventromedial Hypothalamus sends signals to stop eating when we are satiated (hormone Leptin).

Answer 77

The Cerebrum comprises approximately 85% of the brain and is made up of the four lobes, two hemispheres, and the cerebral cortex. The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent part of the brain and is responsible for higher-order brain functions, including conscious thought, sensory perception, language formation and comprehension, fine-motor skills, and voluntary muscle movement. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of densely packed neurons of the cerebrum and is often referred to as the gray matter, because the neurons of the cerebral cortex are not encased in myelin sheaths, therefore giving them a grayish appearance. It is where many of the brain's complex cognitive processes, such as thinking, planning, remembering, and language and sensory processing occur.

Answer 78

The cerebral cortex is broken down into two hemispheres, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. The Corpus Callosum is an arch-like bundle of nerve fibers that extends from the front of the brain to its back and connects the two cerebral hemispheres. The Corpus Callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other. Each hemisphere of the brain is comprised of four lobes. These lobes include the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.

Answer 79

Part of the Cerebral Cortex, located just behind the forehead -Higher-order thinking skill are the main function of the FL -It includes the Prefrontal Cortex, which regulates foresight, speech, judgment, memory and complex thoughts, Broca’s Area, and the Motor Cortex -Last part of the brain to develop, by early 20s -Motor Cortex controls voluntary movement and is arch-shaped and goes from ear to ear in the back of the frontal lobe -Right Motor Cortex controls movement on the Left side of the body & the LMC controls movement on the right side of the body -The Motor Homunculus is a visual representation of the amount of brain tissue dedicated to the movement of specific body parts.

Answer 80

-The Parietal Lobe is the part of the Cerebral Cortex that sits at the top of the head, just behind the Frontal Lobe -The primary function of this lobe is to receive sensory information. -It also assists with your spatial orientation, which is our ability to maintain body orientation and posture in relation to the surrounding environment / physical space. Think of moving around in the dark, or a diver’s ability to enter the water purposefully head or feet first. -The Somatosensory Cortex is located in the front area of the Parietal Lobe and is parallel to the Motor Cortex; it registers touch and motion sensation. It takes in sensation from the skin. -The Left Somatosensory Cortex controls sensations from the RHS of body and the Right Somatosensory Cortex controls sensations from the LHS of the body.

Answer 81

-The Occipital Lobe sits behind the Parietal Lobe, at the back of the head -The primary function of the Occipital Lobe is to regulate vision, via the visual cortex -The visual cortex receives visual information from the eyes and relays it to other areas in the cerebral cortex to make sense out of what is being viewed. -The lefts side of the Visual Cortex interprets information from the left side of each eye, which in turn is reading the Right Field of Vision -The right side of the Visual Cortex, interprets information from the right side of each eye, which in turn is reading the left field of vision

Answer 82

-The TL is the part of the cerebral cortex located above the ears in each hemisphere of the brain -The primary function of this lobe is to process hearing -The TL also plays an important role in memory formation -Location of Wernicke’s Area Language Comprehension -Contains the Angular Gyrus, which allows you to read words on paper and transfer that information in an auditory form. It helps with processing and understanding what we read and hear. -The Auditory Cortex is located in the Temporal Lobe and processes hearing -The Auditory Cortex processes information from the ears on the opposite sides of the head. Left AC processes information from right-hand side of body; Right AC processes information from the left-hand side of the body.

Answer 83

Association Areas are areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions. These are the areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in higher-level mental functions and processes, such as learning, remembering, planning, thinking and speaking.

Answer 84

Neurogenesis is the production of new neurons. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to form new neural connections and reorganize neural pathways (especially during childhood). This is primarily the result of learning and experiencing something new, or following an injury, that damages pre-existing synaptic pathways.

Answer 85

Consciousness is defined as our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. Our levels of consciousness can fluctuate greatly, throughout the day and night. Sometimes, we find ourselves to be somewhat drowsy and less consciously aware of what is going on around us, and sometimes we find ourselves to be more alert and more consciously aware of what is going on around us. At times, things such as sleep deprivation, lack of food, and psychoactive substances can have an affect on our levels of consciousness. When we are asleep, we are in a periodic, natural state of unconsciousness. This is not be confused with being unconscious as a result of a coma, general anesthesia, or trauma to the head.

Answer 86

the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, learning and communicating), is one field that helps us better understand our varying levels and states of consciousness. Cognitive neuroscience has given us insight into such things as the dual processing, parallel processing, and sequential processing.

Answer 87

suggests that our brain uses two systems to process information simultaneously but in different ways: * System 1: Fast, automatic, and often unconscious (e.g., recognizing a familiar face). * System 2: Slower, deliberate, and conscious (e.g., solving a math problem). These two systems work in tandem, allowing us to quickly react with intuition but also think things through when necessary. Example: Imagine you’re driving a car and see a red light. System 1 quickly recognizes the signal and initiates a stop without much thought. Meanwhile, if you’re in an unfamiliar area and need to read street signs to find your way, System 2 kicks in as you consciously analyze the information and make decisions. Dual processing involves two distinct modes of thought, often with one fast and automatic and the other slow and deliberate.

Answer 88

refers to the brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of information simultaneously, often without needing conscious effort. This is especially relevant in sensory processing, where various types of information (like color, shape, and motion) are processed all at once. Example: When you see a bird flying, your brain processes its color, movement, shape, and size all at once, allowing you to recognize it as a bird without having to analyze each detail one at a time. Parallel processing involves processing multiple pieces of sensory information at the same time, creating a unified perception.

Answer 89

Sequential processing is when we process one aspect of a stimulus or a problem at a time, consciously. This approach is generally used when we process new information, or we attempt to solve a difficult problem. Examples of sequential processing would be solving an algebraic math question step-by-step, or following a recipe to make cupcakes.

Answer 90

Blindsight is a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it. Sarah was blinded as a result of carbon monoxide poisoning, but when she walks down a hallway, she is capable of avoiding obstacles that might trip her up. There’s still some part of the brain processing the information, even though Sarah doesn’t consciously see the objects she’s avoiding. This ties into the idea of the dual processing principle. We can simultaneously process information on conscious and unconscious tracks.

Answer 91

Sleep can be defined as a periodic, natural, easily reversible, loss of consciousness. It is distinct from unconsciousness, resulting from coma, anesthesia, or hibernation. Theories as to the purpose of sleep include: Sleep being a protective, evolutionary function. Our predecessors would sleep at night time, hidden away from predators and danger, as well as the difficulties of navigating a dark world. Adaptive Theory Sleep helps us recuperate by restoring and repairing brain tissue, while boosting our immune systems. Sleep also supports growth, physical strength and coordination. During sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone. Numerous studies have also shown that athletes and people who require physical coordination and strength, perform better after a night of good rest, as compared to nights of poor or little rest. Restoration Theory Sleep helps restore and rebuild memories by consolidating them. Newly created memories are transferred from the hippocampus to other regions of the brain, primarily the neocortex, for long-term storage. This process is known as memory consolidation. This occurs during REM sleep. Information Processing Theory Sleep helps feed creativity via dreams.

Answer 92

is a natural, internal, 24-hour clock that regulates a variety of our biological processes and our behaviors. It influences our bodies and minds related to the following: Sleep-Wake Cycle Body Temperature Hormone Production Mood and Alertness Metabolism and Digestion Overall Health External Cues (Light and Dark) There is also a 25 hour rhythm known as the “free-running rhythm “ which occurs when all time cues (sunlight, clocks and televisions) are removed from our environments. Things like jet-lag, shift work, and daylight savings time can negatively impact or circadian rhythm.

Answer 93

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a tiny cluster of cells located in the hypothalamus and plays a critical role in regulating the body's circadian rhythm. The SCN receives input from the eyes about light and dark, helping it synchronize the body's internal clock with the 24-hour day-night cycle. The SCN also influences the timing of sleep and wakefulness by coordinating the release of hormones like melatonin and regulating body temperature. It helps determine when you feel most alert and when you naturally feel sleepy. SCN (In the Hypothalamus) to Pituitary to Pineal: stop producing or start producing melatonin.

Answer 94

-Wide Awake and Active: Beta Waves -Drowsy: Alpha Waves

Answer 95

This is the transition from wakefulness to sleep. It's a light stage where you may experience hypnagogic sensations, aka sleep hallucinations (brief, dream-like thoughts). Primarily Theta Waves of Low Amplitude

Answer 96

This stage accounts for a significant portion of total sleep time. Brain activity slows down, and you become harder to wake. It's characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes, which are neural patterns that help protect sleep.

Answer 97

This is the deepest stage of sleep, and it's the most restorative stage. It's characterized by slow Delta Waves. It's essential for physical and mental restoration.

Answer 98

REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements and is associated with vivid dreaming. - Brain activity during REM sleep (EEG) is similar to or even more active than when you are awake (Beta Waves). This is when most of your dreaming occurs. - Your muscles are paralyzed during REM sleep to prevent you from acting out your dreams. The clinical name for the paralysis experienced during REM sleep is "REM atonia" or "REM sleep atonia." The combination of high brain activity with paralyzed muscles is termed paradoxical sleep. If REM sleep is disrupted, REM Rebound tends to occur in the following sleep cycles. This means that more REM sleep takes place after it has been abbreviated or missing from the previous night’s sleep.

Answer 99

The sleep cycle typically progresses through NREM and REM stages several times during a typical night's sleep. Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes, with NREM stages occurring first and becoming deeper, followed by a period of REM sleep. As the night progresses, the proportion of time spent in REM sleep increases, while NREM-3 grows shorter with each cycle until it disappears before the end of sleep. The functions of NREM and REM sleep are not fully understood, but both are crucial for overall sleep quality and various aspects of cognitive and physical health. NREM sleep is associated with physical restoration, while REM sleep is linked to memory consolidation and emotional processing. The alternation between these stages contributes to a balanced and restorative night of sleep.

Answer 100

describes the power or strength of the wave, which is represented by the height of the wave.

Answer 101

describes the speed of the wave or the distance between the start and end of each wave.

Answer 102

are a natural part of the sleep cycle, occurring during the REM stage of sleep. In psychology, there are several theories about the purposes of dreams, including: Activation-Synthesis Theory (J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley): This theory suggests that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep. It proposes that dreams are essentially the brain's interpretation of these signals. Problem-Solving Theory: Some psychologists argue that dreams may help us process and solve problems or dilemmas in our waking life. Dream content may contain solutions or creative insights. Information Processing & Consolidation Theory: Dreams could serve as a way for the brain to process and organize information from the day, facilitating memory consolidation and learning. Emotional Regulation: Dreams may play a role in regulating emotions. They can provide a safe space for processing and dealing with intense or negative emotions. It's important to note that there isn't a single agreed-upon purpose of dreams in psychology, and the interpretation of dreams can vary among individuals and theories. The true purpose of dreams remains a topic of ongoing research and debate in the field of psychology

Answer 103

or abnormalities in the amount, quality and timing of sleep. Examples of sleep disorders include insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, REM sleep behavior disorder and somnambulism.

Answer 104

is the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep. It is the most common sleep disorder.

Answer 105

is the inability to stay awake. A narcoleptic (one who suffers from narcolepsy) has an irresistible and persistent urge to sleep throughout the day, and at inappropriate times, such as when driving, or even in the middle of a conversation. Narcoleptics typically enter into REM sleep when they fall asleep at inappropriate times.

Answer 106

is a disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing while they are asleep. This results in waking after a minute or so without air and can occur hundreds of times throughout the night. People who suffer from sleep apnea often times feel exhausted throughout the day, due to the lack of quality and deep sleep. Obesity, alcohol consumption and self medicating to induce better sleep are associated with sleep apnea.

Answer 107

which is the clinical term for sleepwalking, is not an acting out of dreams, as it takes place during stage three of NREM sleep, and not during REM sleep.

Answer 108

is when a person acts out the content of the dreams while asleep. This includes vocalizing, kicking, punching, or thrashing. Because this occurs during REM sleep, this afflicted are at risk of harming themselves and their sleep partners. When this happens, the individual is not experiencing REM Atonia or REM Sleep Paralysis.

Answer 109

s defined as the process by which our sensory receptors (those of the five senses) and nervous system receive information from our environment (stimuli). The detection and encoding of stimulus energies. Receiving the information.

Answer 110

is the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting the sensory information that we receive from our environment and converting it into meaningful information in our brains. Processing the information.

Answer 111

is when we perceive things starting from the sensory input and build up to a complete perception. In this process, information flows from our senses (like sight and sound) up to the brain without much influence from prior knowledge or expectations. Imagine you’re assembling a puzzle without seeing the picture on the box. You focus on each piece and its features until you build the whole image.

Answer 112

is when we use our prior knowledge, experiences, or expectations to interpret sensory information. Here, our brain is already “primed” with what it expects to perceive, and it fills in details based on this expectation. This is like having the puzzle’s image and finding pieces based on your sense of what they should look like.

Answer 113

which is the conversion of one form of energy into another form. Various sights, sounds, smells, etc. are transformed into neural impulses that the brain can process and interpret. More on this later.

Answer 114

studies the relationship between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity (light, sound, heat), and our psychological experience of them. Absolute Threshold, Difference Threshold (AKA: Just Noticeable Difference) and Weber’s Law are some examples of topics studied by psychophysicists.

Answer 115

German scientist Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) coined the term absolute threshold, to explain the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. These are those very faint stimuli, such as a candle’s flame from 3o miles away on a clear night, or a single drop of perfume in a three-room apartment. Stimuli we are unable to detect at least 50% of the time are referred to as subliminal. Absolute thresholds, or our ability to detect faint, weak stimuli or signals, can be affected by our psychological states. Our experiences, expectations, motivations and levels of alertness all impact what we can detect. Because these things lead to varying degrees to which we are able to detect environmental stimuli, Signal Detection Theory states that there are no single, absolute thresholds. Absolute thresholds, based on signal detection theory, are incapable of being consistently applied to the general population, as well as individuals, because of the aforementioned factors.

Answer 116

Just Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold) is the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half (50%) the time. If you add 1 oz. to something that weighs 10 oz., you can probably detect the difference, but adding 1 oz. to something that weighs 100 oz. and you most likely will not be able to detect the difference. Ernst Weber noted that for the average person to perceive a difference at least 50% of the time, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage and not an amount. For the above example, the average person would detect the addition of 10 ounces to the 100 oz. This is known as Weber’s Law. If the just noticeable difference in a 10-ounce weight is 1 ounce, the just noticeable difference of an 80-ounce weight would be… 8 ounces.

Answer 117

highlights the integrated nature of our sensory systems, demonstrating how information from multiple senses is combined to create a more comprehensive and nuanced perception of the world around us.

Answer 118

is the phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second pathway. In the context of tasting colors, individuals with synesthesia may perceive certain flavors or tastes when they see particular colors, demonstrating a unique blending of sensory perceptions. Sound-Color Synesthesia: Perceiving colors in response to hearing certain sounds or music. Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia:Associating tastes with specific words or sounds.

Answer 119

is defined as the diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. Sensory receptors become less responsive to constant, unchanging stimuli over time. This allows for our senses to detect novel (new) or changing stimuli in our environments.

Answer 120

refer to the influence that the surrounding environment or stimuli (context & cues)have on our perception of a particular stimulus. An example of this would be when you see a teacher outside of school and have difficulty remembering from where you know the teacher.

Answer 121

Light waves are a form of electromagnetic energy. The shape of these waves influences what we see. The light’s wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next. The wavelength determines the hue, or color, we experience, such as the red petals of a rose or the green leaves of ivy. A light wave’s amplitude, or height (peaks and troughs), determines its intensity. The intensity is the amount of total energy the wave contains. The amount of energy, or intensity, determines how bright or dull the colors are that we see. Larger amplitudes produce brighter colors, while smaller amplitudes produce duller colors.

Answer 122

When light enters our eyes, special receptor cells called cones in the retina detect different wavelengths of light. Our brains then interprets these signals as colors. Shorter wavelengths are perceived as blue, medium wavelengths as green, and longer wavelengths as red. The combination of these signals creates the rich spectrum of colors we see. Prisms can separate white light into its component colors through a process called refraction. When light passes through a prism, it slows down and bends, causing different colors to bend by varying amounts. This separation reveals the spectrum of colors present in white light, showing how different wavelengths are responsible for different colors. The refraction of light through our corneas and lenses help us perceive the colors and shapes of objects.

Answer 123

The outermost, clear, protective layer of the eye, which refracts (bends) light rays to ensure clear vision. Primary focusing power of the eye for light detection.

Answer 124

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Answer 125

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Answer 126

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help fine-tune visual focus to form clear images for the retina to receive. Accommodation refers to the ability of the eye’s lens to adjust its shape, allowing us to focus on objects at different distances.

Answer 127

The light-sensitive, inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones, as well as layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Answer 128

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot, because no receptor cells are located there.

Answer 129

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Answer 130

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina, and function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Answer 131

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; they are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

Answer 132

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Answer 133

is defined as the transformation of stimulus energy to the electrochemical energy of neural impulses. Rods and Cones are photoreceptors that convert light energy into electrochemical neural impulses. The conversion process is known as transduction.

Answer 134

The cornea and lens work together to refract incoming light and focus it for the retina. The retina contains specialized cells called rods and cones, which are sensitive to light. When light reaches these cells, they convert the light signals into electrical (neural) impulses (transduction). These electrical impulses are then transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain for further processing and interpretation of visual information. The thalamus acts as a relay station for transmitting nerve impulses from the optic nerve to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Neural impulses travel from the optic nerve to the thalamus to the visual cortex, located in the occipital lobe! So, the retina acts as the receiver of refracted light, and the rods and cones process that light into neural signals.

Answer 135

This theory states that the retina contains three different types of color receptors, one of which is especially sensitive to red, a second, which is especially sensitive to green, and a third, which is especially sensitive to blue. When these receptors are stimulated in different combinations, they can produce the perception of any color. For example, the retina has no separate receptors that are especially sensitive to yellow, but when red and green wavelengths stimulate both red-sensitive and green-sensitive cones, we see yellow. Researchers measured the response of various cones to different color stimuli, thus confirming that the retina does have three types of color receptors, red, green, and blue. It is estimated that there are more than 1 million color variations.

Answer 136

Approximately 1 in 50 people is “colorblind.” Most often, the person is male*, since the defect is genetically sex linked. The majority of these people are not actually blind to all colors, but rather monochromatic (one-color) or dichromatic (two-color), instead of trichromatic. These people lack functioning red or green-sensitive cones, and sometimes both. This condition makes it impossible for them to distinguish between red and green.

Answer 137

Color vision is controlled by genes located on the X chromosome. Since males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY), they only have one copy of each gene on the X chromosome. If a male inherits a faulty gene for color vision on his single X chromosome, he will be colorblind, as he lacks a second X chromosome that could potentially have a functioning gene. Females, on the other hand, have two X chromosomes (XX). To be colorblind, a female must inherit faulty color vision genes on both of her X chromosomes. If only one of her X chromosomes has a faulty gene, the other X chromosome’s functioning gene typically compensates, making her a carrier of the condition but not colorblind herself. This difference in inheritance is why colorblindness is much more common in males than in females.

Answer 138

The colorblind phenomenon perplexed physiologist Ewald Hering, because trichromatic theory leaves some parts of the color vision mystery unsolved. If people who are colorblind to red and green can still see yellow, there must be another explanation. He proposed that color vision must involve two additional color processes, one responsible for red vs green perception, and another for blue vs yellow perception. About a century after the hypothesis, researchers confirmed it to be true. This theory is now known as the opponent-process theory. According to this theory, we have certain “opponent” pairs of colors in our eyes: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white. When one color in a pair is stimulated, it blocks or “opposes” the other color. If you look at something green, your brain blocks out red in that spot, which is why you only see green. The same happens for the other pairs. This is also why you can’t see something as a mix of red and green; instead, it looks either red or green, but not both at once. This theory helps explain things like afterimages, where if you stare at a red image for a while and then look at a white surface, you might see a green afterimage.

Answer 139

Prosopagnosia, sometimes referred to as face blindness, is an actual condition in which a person is incapable of recognizing faces–even their own–due to damage to the temporal lobe of the right hemisphere. The specific area that regulates facial awareness is known as the fusiform face area. Sensation remains , but Perception is lost!!!

Answer 140

Sound Waves are a form of mechanical energy, and like light waves, they vary in shape. The height, or amplitude, of sound waves determines their loudness. This amplitude is measured in decibels. The length of the sound waves, or frequency, determines the pitch. High pitch sounds have higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths)and are treble-like, and low pitch sounds have lower frequencies (longer wavelengths)and are bass-like. A coach’s whistle would produce a relatively high pitch, whereas a marching band’s bass drum would produce a relatively low pitch. Sound occurs through the movement of air molecules at different wavelengths (pitch) and amplitudes (loudness)

Answer 141

is a concept in auditory perception that explains how we perceive different frequencies or pitches of sound. Different frequencies of sound are associated with different locations on the basilar membrane within the cochlea. Audiologists generally agree that this theory better explains how we perceive high-pitched sounds. - High-frequency sounds stimulate areas of the basilar membrane near the base of the cochlea. - Low-frequency sounds stimulate areas of the basilar membrane toward the apex or tip of the cochlea. states that different parts of the cochlea (the spiral-shaped part of our inner ear) respond to different pitches. High-pitched sounds are detected at one end of the cochlea, and low-pitched sounds are detected at the other end.

Answer 142

states that the rate at which nerve impulses travel up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the tone, enabling us to sense and perceive the pitch. Audiologists generally agree that this theory better explains how we perceive low-pitch sounds. says that the entire cochlea vibrates at the frequency of the sound. If a sound wave has a frequency of 100 vibrations per second, the cochlea sends signals to the brain at 100 signals per second. This theory works best for lower pitches (lower frequencies), because the cochlea’s vibrations can’t keep up with higher frequencies.

Answer 143

serves as a supplemental addition to frequency theory to help explain how we hear higher pitches. It says that groups of neurons take turns (like volleying in tennis) firing at different times to cover higher frequencies that single neurons can’t handle alone. Together, these groups can send signals to the brain that match the pitch of higher-frequency sounds.

Answer 144

The outer ear consists of three main parts: Pinna (Auricle) Ear Canal (Auditory Canal) Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)

Answer 145

which is made of cartilage and directs the sound into the ear, is the most external and visible part of the ear. The pinna helps to funnel and collect sound.

Answer 146

aka ear canal,is the tube-like passage that extends from the external ear to the eardrum, helping to transmit sound waves to the middle ear.

Answer 147

aka, eardrum, is a thin membrane at the end of the ear canal. It vibrates in response to sound waves and transmits these vibrations to the middle ear. The vibrations of the eardrum help amplify sound waves. The tympanic membrane is extremely sensitive and prone to damage. Ruptures to the tympanic membrane can potentially lead to temporary or permanent hearing loss.

Answer 148

consists of the Ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes), Eustachian Tubes, and the Oval Window and runs between the eardrum and cochlea. These components work together to amplify and transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. The Ossicles, which is made up of the Malleus (hammer), the Incus (anvil), and the Stapes (stirrups) are three small bones in the middle ear that transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. The malleus is connected to the eardrum, the incus bridges the malleus and stapes, and the stapes is connected to the oval window of the inner ear. The Eustachian Tube is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the throat. It helps equalize air pressure on both sides of the eardrum, preventing discomfort and aiding in hearing. The Oval Window is a membrane-covered opening between the middle ear and the inner ear.The stapes bone of the ossicles is attached to the oval window, and when it vibrates in response to sound waves, it transmits these vibrations into the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear.

Answer 149

inner ear is a complex structure responsible for converting sound waves into electrical signals (transduction) that the brain can interpret. Its main components include the Cochlea, Vestibular System, and Auditory Nerve.

Answer 150

The Cochlea is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure that converts sound vibrations into electrical signals. Different regions of the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound. This is where transduction takes place! The Cochlea is comprised of the following components: Scala Vestibuli and Scala Tympani: these are two fluid-filled chambers that run parallel to each other along the length of the cochlea. They help transmit sound waves. Scala Media (AKA Cochlear Duct):is the central compartment of the Cochlea and filled with endolymph, a fluid that vibrates in response to sound waves. It houses the organ of Corti. Organ of Corti:Located within the scala media, it contains specialized hair cells (stereocilia) that are crucial for converting mechanical vibrations into electrical signals. These hair cells are responsible for the transduction of sound. Basilar Membrane: is a thin, flexible membrane within the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti. Different regions of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies of sound. Stereocilia: are specialized cells in the organ of Corti with hair-like projections. When these hair cells are bent by the movement of the basilar membrane, they generate electrical signals, initiating the process of auditory signal transmission.

Answer 151

The transduction of sound waves into electrical impulses, or neural impulses, takes place in the cochlea of the inner ear. Specifically, this process occurs in the organ of Corti within the cochlea. The hair cells (stereocilia)in the organ of Corti are responsible for transducing the mechanical vibrations produced by sound waves into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted via the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex of the brain, contained in the temporal lobe, where they are interpreted as sound.

Answer 152

Hearing loss is categorized as either sensorineural hearing loss or conduction hearing loss. Sensorineural Hearing Loss is caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves. This form of hearing loss is also referred to as nerve deafness. Cochlear Implants are used to treat sensorineural hearing loss. Conduction Hearing Loss is hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. This is the most common form of hearing loss and is caused by a variety of factors which include disease, hereditary factors, aging and prolonged exposure to loud noises. Medical interventions, surgery or hearing aids may be used in treating conduction hearing loss.

Answer 153

Gustation is the sensation of tasting, which is made possible by the receptor cells on our tongues. These receptor cells are called papillae (puh·pi·lee). We typically refer to them as taste buds. The taste buds allow us to detect the six basic tastes, which are sweet, salty, sour, bitter, savory (umami), and fatty (oleogustus). The foliate papillae, which are located on the sides of our tongue and help us detect sour and bitter flavors, are more abundant in early life, but start to diminish as we age. This is one reason why young children often react very strongly to sour and bitter flavors! There are more than 200 taste buds on our tongues and each contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells. These receptor cells reproduce themselves every 1 to 2 weeks. Most people are medium tasters, but some are also supertasters, while others nontasters.

Answer 154

Sweet = energy source Salty = sodium is essential for physiological processes (proper cellular functioning) Sour = potentially toxic acid Bitter = potential poison Umami (Savory) = proteins to grow and repair tissue Oleogustus (Fatty) = fats for energy, insulation, and cell growth

Answer 155

When we eat, molecules enter the taste buds and stimulate the taste receptor cells located within our taste buds. These signals travel to the thalamus, ultimately being processed by the gustatory cortex, which is located within the cerebral cortex. The more densely packed your taste buds are, the more intensely you taste food; the less densely packed, the less intense your sense of taste. The density of taste buds is controlled by genetic disposition. Individuals with extremely densely packed taste buds are referred to as supertasters.

Answer 156

Olfaction refers to the sense of smell. It is the ability to detect and identify odors through the olfactory system. Transduction The conversion of odor stimuli into electrical signals that the brain can interpret, takes place in the olfactory membrane, which contains the olfactory receptor cells. When these receptors are activated by odorants (chemical compounds that can be detected by the olfactory system), they generate electrical signals that are then transmitted along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb in the brain for further processing and interpretation. The amygdala, which is involved in emotions, receives input from the olfactory system during this process, as does the hippocampus, which is responsible for the creation of memories. This connection is believed to be the reason why certain smells can trigger memories, particularly flashbulb memories (more in this at a later time!). Smell (Olfaction) is the only sense that does not go to the thalamus before being sent to the cerebral cortex.

Answer 157

There are four basic touch sensations that humans perceive: pressure, pain, warmth and cold. Nociceptors / pain receptors are the sensory receptors that are sensitive to painful stimuli and transmit that information to the brain. These signals are sent once an individual's absolute threshold for pain is reached. People’s pain thresholds vary and can be influenced by biology, culture & socialization, as well as mindset (biopsychosocial approach to understanding pain). Phantom Limb is when an individual no longer has a body part, but has sensation in the area of the missing body part. On rare occasions, individuals may suffer from congenital analgesia. People with this rare condition are unable to feel physical pain due to genetic mutations that affect their ability to sense or transmit pain signals.

Answer 158

Gate-control theory is the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The gate is opened by the activity of pain signals, traveling up small nerve fibers, and is closed by activity in larger fibers, or by information coming from the brain. For example, an injury activates the small fibers and opens the gate. The pain signals can then travel to your brain, and you feel pain. But large-fiber activity stimulated by massage, electrical stimulation, or acupuncture, can close the pain gate by blocking pain signals. Brain to spinal cord messages can also close the gate. As a result, chronic pain can be treated both by gate-closing stimulation, such as massage, and by mental activity, such as distraction.

Answer 159

When we touch dry, cold metal objects, we experience a tactile feeling of wetness. Our hands contain receptors to detect cold and pressure, and because they are located so closely to one another, when the two are activated together, it results in the aforementioned sensation. When we activate cold and warmth receptors at the same time (hold a hot and cold object in the same hand), it produces a hot sensation.

Answer 160

Kinesthesis (proprioception) is the sense that enables us to perceive the position, movement, and orientation of our own body parts. The vestibular sense, aka equilibrium, is responsible for detecting changes in the position and movement of the head. It relies on the vestibular system, located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear. The vestibular sense helps us maintain balance, coordinate movements, and stabilize our gaze during head movements. Dysfunction of the vestibular system can result in issues such as dizziness, vertigo, or problems with balance.

Answer 161

A special group of odorants, pheromones, are olfactory chemical messages that are linked to sexual attraction. In studies conducted by Miller and Maner (2010, 2011), heterosexual men who smelled the shirts of ovulating women became more sexually aroused and saw increases in their testosterone levels.

Answer 162

The brain circuits that process our physical sensations sometimes interact with the brain circuits that process our cognition. This is known as embodied cognition. Bodily sensations and positions can impact our thoughts, feelings, and judgment.

Answer 163

Vision and Hearing

Answer 164

taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction)

Answer 165

Vestibular Sense (balance) and Kinesthetic Sense (body orientation)

Answer 166

When we eat, the aromas released from food travel up the back of our throat to our olfactory receptors in the nose, allowing us to smell the food while we taste it. This significantly contributes to our perception of flavor. In essence, much of what we perceive as taste is actually a combination of smell and taste sensations working together. This helps explain why we don’t taste foods as intensely as we normally do when we are congested, with “stuffy” noses.

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