1. Inflammatory Response

Question 1

What are the main types of stimuli that trigger inflammation?

Answer 1

Trauma, infection, foreign material, caustic chemicals, allergens, and autoimmune disease.

Question 2

What are PAMPs?

Answer 2

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, conserved microbial molecules recognized as foreign.

Question 3

Give examples of PAMPs.

Answer 3

Lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid, peptidoglycan, microbial oligonucleotides.

Question 4

What are DAMPs?

Answer 4

Danger-associated molecular patterns, endogenous molecules that signal cellular damage.

Question 5

Give examples of DAMPs.

Answer 5

Fibrinogen, high-mobility group B1, heat shock proteins (HSPs).

Question 6

What is HMGB1 and its role in inflammation?

Answer 6

High-mobility group B1, a DAMP released during necrosis and late-stage sepsis.

Question 7

What are HSP60 and HSP70?

Answer 7

Heat shock proteins that regulate protein folding and stimulate innate immune cells.

Question 8

What do PAMPs and DAMPs bind to?

Answer 8

Pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs).

Question 9

Where are PRRs located?

Answer 9

On cell surfaces, inside cells, and in bodily fluids.

Question 10

What is the function of PRRs?

Answer 10

Initiate complex cellular responses that lead to inflammation.

Question 11

What are Toll-like receptors (TLRs)?

Answer 11

Type 1 transmembrane proteins that initiate intracellular signaling.

Question 12

What does TLR4 recognize?

Answer 12

Lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin).

Question 13

Which molecules work with TLR4?

Answer 13

CD14 and LPS-binding protein.

Question 14

What transcription factor is activated by TLRs?

Answer 14

NF-κB

Question 15

What is neurogenic inflammation?

Answer 15

Bidirectional interaction between nervous and immune systems.

Question 16

What are tachykinins?

Answer 16

Neuropeptides released after trauma to sensory nerves.

Question 17

What is the main tachykinin involved in inflammation?

Answer 17

Substance P.

Question 18

What receptor does substance P bind to?

Answer 18

Neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1-R).

Question 19

Name two effects of substance P.

Answer 19

Vasodilation, leukocyte chemotaxis.

Question 20

How does substance P enhance inflammation?

Answer 20

Stimulates cytokine production and mast cell degranulation.

Question 21

What are the two main vasoactive amines?

Answer 21

Histamine and serotonin.

Question 22

Where is histamine stored?

Answer 22

In mast cell granules.

Question 23

What receptor does histamine primarily interact with?

Answer 23

H1 receptor.

Question 24

What are histamine’s direct vascular effects?

Answer 24

Arteriolar vasodilation, venule permeability, large artery constriction.

Question 25

What immune cell does histamine attract?

Answer 25

Eosinophils.

Question 26

What triggers histamine release?

Answer 26

Trauma, allergens, immune reactions.

Question 27

What is the duration of histamine effects?

Answer 27

Peaks within 15-20 minutes.

Question 28

What species differences exist for serotonin?

Answer 28

More active in rodents, species-specific response.

Question 29

Where is serotonin stored?

Answer 29

Mast cells, basophils, neuroendocrine cells.

Question 30

What does serotonin do?

Answer 30

Vasodilation, similar to histamine in certain species.

Question 31

What are cytokines?

Answer 31

Small proteins that act as intercellular messengers.

Question 32

What cells produce cytokines?

Answer 32

Macrophages, T-cells, epithelial cells, and more.

Question 33

What is TNF-α?

Answer 33

A proinflammatory cytokine produced by activated macrophages.

Question 34

What are TNF-α receptors?

Answer 34

TNFR1 and TNFR2.

Question 35

What is IL-1β's activation pathway?

Answer 35

Cleaved by caspase-1 to its active form.

Question 36

What does IL-1RA do?

Answer 36

Acts as an anti-inflammatory by blocking IL-1 receptors.

Question 37

What are IL-1’s effects?

Answer 37

Fever, leukocyte activation, prostaglandin synthesis.

Question 38

What cytokine induces acute phase protein production?

Answer 38

IL-6.

Question 39

What is IL-6’s dual role?

Answer 39

Proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory.

Question 40

What increases plasma IL-6?

Answer 40

Inflammation severity and surgical trauma.

Question 41

What are chemokines?

Answer 41

Cytokines that attract immune cells.

Question 42

Name a key neutrophil chemoattractant.

Answer 42

IL-8 (CXCL8).

Question 43

What do chemokines bind to?

Answer 43

G protein coupled receptors on leukocytes.

Question 44

What do ELR+ CXC chemokines attract?

Answer 44

Neutrophils.

Question 45

What does MCP-1 (CCL2) recruit?

Answer 45

Monocytes.

Question 46

What happens to chemokine levels over time?

Answer 46

Degrade and decrease to resolve inflammation.

Question 47

What species do not express IL-8?

Answer 47

Rodents.

Question 48

What does IL-8 stimulate?

Answer 48

Adhesion molecule expression and degranulation.

Question 49

What is MIP-1α?

Answer 49

Macrophage inflammatory protein that attracts monocytes.

Question 50

What are CXC and CC chemokines?

Answer 50

Major families involved in inflammation.

Question 51

What defines chronic inflammation?

Answer 51

Persistent inflammation with monocytes, angiogenesis, fibrosis.

Question 52

What is the role of fibroblasts?

Answer 52

Produce chemokines and extracellular matrix components.

Question 53

What is CD40 on fibroblasts?

Answer 53

A receptor that promotes IL-6 and COX-2 expression.

Question 54

What are myofibroblasts?

Answer 54

Fibroblasts that produce collagen and promote fibrosis.

Question 55

What is a granuloma?

Answer 55

A collection of macrophages and giant cells to contain stimuli.

Question 56

What can cause granulomas?

Answer 56

Sutures, starch, foreign bodies.

Question 57

What is the function of granulomas?

Answer 57

To sequester the inciting agent.

Question 58

Which cytokines are involved in chronic inflammation?

Answer 58

IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β

Question 59

What promotes fibroblast recruitment?

Answer 59

MCP-1, IL-8, SDF-1.

Question 60

What does IL-6 induce in chronic inflammation?

Answer 60

Proliferation of lymphocytes and acute phase protein production.

Question 61

What is margination?

Answer 61

Leukocytes moving to the vessel wall.

Question 62

What do selectins do?

Answer 62

Initiate weak binding of leukocytes to endothelium.

Question 63

What are the main selectins?

Answer 63

E-selectin, P-selectin, L-selectin.

Question 64

What molecules increase selectin expression?

Answer 64

Proinflammatory cytokines.

Question 65

What is rolling?

Answer 65

Leukocytes move along endothelium with transient selectin bonds.

Question 66

What are integrins?

Answer 66

High-affinity leukocyte adhesion molecules.

Question 67

What do integrins bind to?

Answer 67

ICAM-1 on endothelial cells.

Question 68

What does PECAM-1 do?

Answer 68

Facilitates transmigration of leukocytes.

Question 69

What is diapedesis?

Answer 69

Leukocyte movement between endothelial cells.

Question 70

What guides leukocyte migration in tissues?

Answer 70

Chemoattractant gradients.

Question 71

What is the most abundant leukocyte?

Answer 71

Neutrophils.

Question 72

What do neutrophils contain?

Answer 72

Primary and secondary granules with microbicidal enzymes.

Question 73

What activates neutrophils?

Answer 73

Cytokines, complement, bacterial products.

Question 74

What is neutrophil priming?

Answer 74

Enhanced response after initial stimulation.

Question 75

What happens to neutrophils after action?

Answer 75

Apoptosis or necrosis.

Question 76

What removes apoptotic neutrophils?

Answer 76

Macrophages.

Question 77

What delays neutrophil apoptosis?

Answer 77

Sepsis and extreme inflammation.

Question 78

What cytokines do neutrophils produce?

Answer 78

IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α

Question 79

What is the role of ROS in neutrophils?

Answer 79

Killing pathogens.

Question 80

How long do neutrophils remain at the site?

Answer 80

Replaced by macrophages in 24-48 hours.

Question 81

What are the functions of macrophages?

Answer 81

Debridement, cytokine production, tissue repair.

Question 82

Where do macrophages come from?

Answer 82

Differentiated monocytes.

Question 83

What chemokines attract monocytes?

Answer 83

C3a, C5a, PDGF, TGF-β

Question 84

What enzymes do macrophages secrete?

Answer 84

Collagenases, elastases.

Question 85

What cytokines do macrophages release?

Answer 85

IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α

Question 86

What is the role of T-helper 1 cells?

Answer 86

Stimulate macrophages and cytotoxic T-cells.

Question 87

What do Th-1 cells produce?

Answer 87

IFN-γ (Interferon gamma) and IL-2 (Interleukin-2)

Question 88

What is the role of Th-2 cells?

Answer 88

Respond to parasites, allergies.

Question 89

What do Th-2 cells produce?

Answer 89

IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13.

Question 90

What suppresses macrophage function?

Answer 90

Th-2 cytokines.

Question 91

What activates mast cells?

Answer 91

Trauma, complement, microbes, neuropeptides.

Question 92

What do mast cells release?

Answer 92

Histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, cytokines.

Question 93

What are other sources of cytokines?

Answer 93

Fibroblasts, myocytes, endothelial cells.

Question 94

What is the role of mesenchymal cells in inflammation?

Answer 94

Produce proinflammatory mediators.

Question 95

What is the main function of mast cells in acute inflammation?

Answer 95

Initiate vascular response.