13 - Motor Learning

Question 1

Observational learning

Answer 1

• imitative learning that occurs by observing expert role models (visually or acoustically)
• contrasted with trial-and-error learning

Question 2

Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

Answer 2

• unsupervised learning (implicit) = learning through observation alone
• supervised learning (explicit) = learning by instruction with a teacher; can be demonstrational or non-demonstrational

Question 3

Observational practice

Answer 3

• observational practice occurs in the absence of physical practice
• do not confuse observational learning with observational practice

Question 4

Practice schedules

Answer 4

• one task = constant practice
• two or more tasks = variable practice; blocked practice; serial practice; random practice
• variability of practice is also called contextual interference = interference created by practicing more than one task within the same session

Question 5

Phases of a learning study

Answer 5

• acquisition (learning, encoding)

- retention/recall (memory) = immediate, delayed

Question 6

Testing effect

Answer 6

• giving people a retrieval test during or after acquisition can lead to memory enhancements during recall testing
• but the effect is selective (retrieval benefit, RIF)

Question 7

Wulf - Feedback

Answer 7

• provides a knowledge of results (KR)
• can be intrinsic (self-feedback) or augmented (external, from a person or device)
• can be concurrent or delayed
• can vary in frequency (how often) and timing (during or after performing)

Question 8

Wulf - Feedback results

Answer 8

Frequency

• reduced feedback enhances learning
• more complex tasks might require more frequent feedback

Timing

• concurrent feedback may temporarily enhance performance, but it has little to no long-term effect
• delaying feedback allows learners to first use intrinsic feedback

Question 9

Wulf - Task order

Answer 9

• blocked practice is the standard mode of practice in the performing arts
• random practice involves contextual interference

Question 10

Wulf - Task order results

Answer 10

• random practice = people perform worse during the acquisition phase but better during retention testing
• applies mainly to simple tasks

Explanations

• elaboration = random practice promotes the use of multiple and variable information-processing strategies
• reconstruction = interference leads to (partial) forgetting of the motor program

Question 11

Wulf - Observational practice

Answer 11

• allows learners to obtain a big picture of the task to be learned, supporting planning
• allows them to chunk information and facilitate information encoding

Question 12

Wulf - Observational practice results

Answer 12

• both > physical > observational > none
• both experts and competent novices as role models (recognize errors)
• dyad practice = one learner practices while other observes; more effective in retention tests

Question 13

Wulf - Focus of attention

Answer 13

• internal focus = directing attention to one’s movements

- external focus = directing attention to the effects of one’s movements on the environment

Question 14

Wulf - Focus of attention results

Answer 14

• strong advantage of external focus over internal focus
• advantage of external focus = enhancement of automaticity, utilizing unconscious and automatic processes, increasing efficiency

Question 15

Tempel - Study

Answer 15

• retrieval practice can cause retrieval-induced forgetting
• study to see if RIF occurs in complex motor tasks (dance sequences)
• novice participants

Question 16

Tempel - DV

Answer 16

• number of correctly recalled dance steps (out of 8)

- two scoring methods = conservative (corresponded to displayed name), liberal (corresponded to any of the figures)

Question 17

Tempel - Experiment 1

Answer 17

• IV = type of practice (between-subject); retrieval practice, no retrieval practice
• 4 salsa dances
• learning phase = no music (description), no music (counting), no music (counting + fast), music (counting)
• retrieval practice = recall 2 of the learned dances
• distractor task
• final recall = recall all 4 dances; non-RP dances done first

Question 18

Tempel - Experiment 1 results

Answer 18

• more steps of the tested items in the RP group were recalled (retrieval benefit)
• fewer steps of the non-tested items in the RP group were recalled (RIF)

Question 19

Tempel - Experiment 2

Answer 19

• 2 categories = 2 dances for salsa, 2 dances for Kizomba
• IV = type of practice (within-subject); retrieval practice, no retrieval practice
• learning phase
• retrieval practice = recall 1 of the learned dances of 1 category
• distractor task
• final recall = items within a category done in succession; non-practiced dance before practiced

Question 20

Tempel - Experiment 2 results

Answer 20

• retrieval-practiced dance was better recalled than control
• non-practiced dance belonging to the same category as the practiced dance was recalled worse than control (RIF)
• the fact that it is worse suggests a categorical organization

Question 21

Tempel - Experiment 3

Answer 21

• IV = type of practice (within-subject); restudy, no restudy
• same procedure of Experiment 2

Question 22

Tempel - Experiment 3 results

Answer 22

• restudied items were better recalled than control
• non-restudied items in the same category showed a benefit
• RIF seems to be due to inhibitory processes related to competitive retrieval-practice of selected items