1D. Qualitative methods

Question 1

Which research paradigm underpins qualitative research?

Answer 1

Interpretivism - assumes there is ‘no true reality’ but that reality is socially constructed and therefore fluid.

Question 2

What do qualitative methods explore?

Answer 2

Questions that relate to the kind and quality of things. They are used for answering how, what, or why questions.

Question 3

What is purposive sampling?

Answer 3

Deliberately using non-probability samples for selecting study population - Participants selected purposely because of specific characteristics, which are of relevance to the research question.

should lead to ID of main perspectives around the study topic, but should also capture diverse perspectives.

Question 4

What is theoretical saturation?

Answer 4

The point at which no new contribution to the emerging findings is obtained from further analysis of interviews, FGDs, and/or observations. Qual researchers should aim to reach theoretical saturation before concluding data collection to ensure that the pertinent concepts have been retrieved.

Sometimes easier said than done!

Question 5

What are some of the ways in which the quality of social research can be assessed?

Answer 5

1. Triangulation to provide additional insights
2. Clear documentation of methods to increase trustworthiness
3. Supporting theory with quotes
4. Limitation (testing how well findings of research fit the data)
5. Falsification (theory generated from primary analysis ‘falsified’ against each participant)
6. Member checking (analytical themes and interpretive findings formally tested within sample to enhance validity)
7. Reflexivity

Question 6

What are the different types of one-to-one interviews?

Answer 6

Semi-structured
In-depth
Narrative

Can also be a combination of the above!

Question 7

What is action research?

Answer 7

A collaborative and cyclical approach to research, in which practitioners and researchers look for a solution to a practice-related problem or to bring about change in a particular setting. Aims to integrate action and reflection.

People under study actively involved as researchers - enables researchers to make changes to projects during course of research, not simply at the end

Question 8

What are participant and non-participant observation?

Answer 8

Participant: researchers actively take part in a setting as they collect their data.

Non-participant: observation achieved as a non-participant e.g. by attending meetings but not contributing to the agenda.

Question 9

What are some methods for improving the quality of data collection in qualitative research?

Answer 9

• Using same data collection tool for each interview/group etc.
• Using one researcher or agreeing a common approach.
• Standardised training for researchers.
• Producing an accurate record of the session through audio or video recordings (if poss - ideally best to avoid note taking as less easy to listen fully)

Question 10

When are focus groups particularly useful?

Answer 10

1. When there are power differences between participants and decision-makers or professionals
2. When the everyday use of language and culture of particular groups is of interest
3. When one wants to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic.

Question 11

What are some limitations of focus groups?

Answer 11

○ Researcher has less control over the data produced.
○ Researcher has little control over interaction other than generally keeping participants focused on the topic.
○ The researcher can have difficulties in recruiting and assembling the focus group (e.g. finding a date and time for seven busy health care professionals, or resistance from people who are less articulate or confident).
○ The researcher cannot assure full confidentiality and anonymity as information is shared in the group.

Question 12

What is participatory action research?

Answer 12

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a collaborative research approach that brings together researchers and community members to jointly investigate problems and take action for social change

Question 13

What are some limitations of participant observation/ethnography?

Answer 13

• Observer bias
• Difficulty of replicating data

Question 14

How does qualitative research contribute to the formulation of policy?

Answer 14

Through identifying research questions or policy problems - defining the boundaries of an issue and creating a contextual understanding

Question 15

How does qualitative research contribute to policy development?

Answer 15

Qualitative research contributes methods and tools to think about what questions to ask, how they are understood by potential respondents, and how to interpret their responses

Question 16

How can qualitative research contribute to policy evaluation?

Answer 16

• Can help unpick what worked and why, providing insight for refining or modifying the intervention
• Can reveal unintended consequences and perceptions

Question 17

What is an example of how qualitative methods can be used to decide which questions to ask?

Answer 17

NATSAL - National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles

• Large cross-sectional survey
• Qualitative data used to guide development of questions on sexual function

Question 18

What is ‘reducing the data’?

Answer 18

Process of organizing data into some manageable form

Question 19

How do inductive vs deductive approaches work?

Answer 19

Inductive = Findings are inducted from the data to generate a theory from the concepts inherent within the data.

Deductive = starts with theories and tests them.

Question 20

What are three types of qualitative analysis?

Answer 20

1. Thematic content
2. Grounded theory
3. Framework

Question 21

What is thematic analysis?

Answer 21

• Identification and reporting of patterns (themes) which are retrieved from the primary qual data.
• Thematic analysis is an accessible form of qual analysis as doesn’t require development of theory

Not much is known as a starting point, keep going until you have thematic saturation with no new codes.

Question 22

What is framework analysis?

Answer 22

• Approach developed by National Centre for Social Research.
• Policy oriented
• Clear aims and a research q
• Themes reflect policy question as well as emerging from the data
• Thematic framework used to classify and organize data according to key themes, concepts and emergent categories.
• Each research study requires its own distinctive thematic framework comprising of a series of main themes, subdivided by a succession of related sub-themes or topics. These categories evolve and are refined (as an iterative process) through the researcher’s familiarisation with the raw data and the subsequent cross-sectional labelling.
• Final stage is summarising or synthesising the original data from each case (subject) within appropriate parts of the thematic framework.

Question 23

What is analytical induction/deviant case analysis?

Answer 23

• Each section of transcript or notes of an observation is not assigned a single code but is merely the first stage in the process of analysis.
• Codes become increasingly more elaborate as more data examined.
• Once coding completed, systematic comparisons made within and between labelled transcript data.
• In AI, generalisability of the final conclusions is achieved by focusing on the ‘deviant’ or contradictory indexed items that emerge at this stage.
• An attempt is made to modify the initial analytical themes in order to embrace these deviant cases. This procedure is essential to guard against selective attention to data in order to provide a more systematic means of extending analytic thinking.

There are clear merits to this deviant case approach applied to interview data analysis, particularly in its drawing attention to the importance of contradictions as being indicative of an important dynamic at work rather than some aberrant occurrence or utterance that cannot be fitted into a code.

Question 24

What is grounded theory?

Answer 24

• Set of ideas (the ‘theory’) generated from the concepts and constructs retrieved from the coding stages.
• Theory remains grounded in the data, and is obtained from analysis of the codes and ‘memos’ noted during the coding process. These come together to create an overall theory explaining the phenomenon under investigation.

You have a theory, data collection feeds into this cyclically until you have theoretical saturation.

Question 25

What is the constant-comparative approach?

Answer 25

- Often employed as part of grounded theory. - Involves comparing newly acquired data with dataset already collected. - Each new 'unit' of data considered in terms of how it changes the developing theory and what it adds to the emerging theory. - Can ID when theoretical saturation is reached.

Question 26

How can you enhance the validity and credibility of analysis?

Answer 26

1. Deviant data (not solely quoting supportive data) 2. Developing a coding structure with other researchers 3. Counting responses to see how common particular responses are 4. Transparency 5. Describing process of analysis 6. Comparing the findings using other study methods 7. Comparing and contrasting findings with other studies

Question 27

What is an example of a checklist required for peer-reviewed publication of a qualitative paper?

Answer 27

COREQ checklist, 2007

Question 28

What are some typical requirements in presenting qualitative data?

Answer 28

1. Provide context (background and rationale) 2. Summarise the data in themes and include examples 3. Comment on reflexivity Consider - - Discussion of transferability - Discussion of methods - Show conclusions consistent with evidence

Question 29

What are some key ethical considerations with qualitative research?

Answer 29

1. Costs (participant time and energy) 2. Psychological harm

Question 30

What are some strategies for managing ethical issues in qualitative research before data collection?

Answer 30

1. Risk assessment 2. Literature review (to see what others have done) 3. Be clear with participants about purpose 4. Informed consent 5. Ground rules in FGDs

Question 31

What are some strategies for managing ethical issues in qualitative research after data collection?

Answer 31

1. Anonymisation 2. Data protection 3. Provide contact details so participants can report any concerns they may have about research

Question 32

What should be included in informed consent for qualitative research?

Answer 32

Participants should be informed about: - Purpose of study - Who is funding study - Who researcher is - How data will be used - What is required of participants, how long their involvement will last, and that their participation is voluntary. Should fit into one page, and good practice to give copy of consent form to participant!

Question 33

What are some problems that may be encountered in qualitative research?

Answer 33

- Inadequate sample - Data lack credibility - Findings sidelined (due to time lag, study findings at odds with decision-makers' agenda, or findings not well known)

Question 34

What are some factors facilitating the use of qualitative research to influence policy?

Answer 34

- Depth of data - Flexibility - Memorable and compelling stories produced - Capacity to reveal subtleties and complexities - Potential to engage communities and other stakeholders in data-gathering process Other strengths include: - Can generate new theory - Can provide much more complete picture in comb with quant methods

Question 35

What are some factors limiting the use of qualitative research to influence policy?

Answer 35

- Generalisability (or lack of) - Lack of reliability - Acceptability to policy makers - Perceived credibility - Volume of data (time intensive) - Poor quality work can lead to misleading findings - Policy makers may not understand or value the interpretive position - Can be time and labor-intensive

Question 36

Summarise qualitative research

Answer 36

**- A method of enquiry, a systematic subjective approach to exploring phenomena** - Used to gain insight; explore the depth, richness, and complexity the phenomenon(a) of interest - Not numerical - depends on conceptual analysis - Used where it is important to understand the meaning and interpretation of human social arrangements

Question 37

What are the main types of qualitative methods?

Answer 37

Interviews - to explore accounts of experiences and beliefs FGD - Exploring shared experiences/beliefs, exploring how people interact and discuss Observation - Exploring what people actually do (not what they say they do) Participatory action research - participants involved in doing the research. Useful for understanding needs and for evaluation purposes.