2 - Language, Reference & Meaning

Question 1

How does Deacon (1997) define language (3 parts)?

Answer 1

1. A mode of communication that is based on symbolic reference (symbol)
2. Involving combinatorial rules (syntax) that
3. Comprise a system for representing logical relationships among these symbols (system: relation b/w symbol & syntax).

Question 2

Fundamentally, what is a reference?

Answer 2

The means by which the sign brings to mind the signified.

Question 3

Describe iconic, indexical & symbolic reference and how they relate to one another (hierarchical & grounded).

Answer 3

Iconic reference:

• based on physical similarity (resemblance) b/w the sign & signified e.g. A portait painting. Or onomatopoeia - spoken language relying on resemblance, e.g. “bang”.
• forms basis for basic perceptual recognition processes - “re-cognition” - and
• for perceptual forms of mental representation (mental imagery - re-presentation).
• Underpins how we ‘re-cognise’.

Indexical Reference

• based on physical or temporal contiguity (correlation - association) between a sign & what it signifies e.g. alarm calls indicate the presence of a predator, smoke indicates a fire.
• Indicates or indexes the presence or direction or action of an object or event.
• “here, there, I, me”

Symbolic Reference

• based on some formal or agreed upon link (social convention).
• Reference holds irrespective of:
  
  • the similarity of the physical characteristics between sign or object (CAT doesn’t look/sound like a cat)
  • Any physical or temporal continuity between sign & object.

Three forms of reference co-exist w/i hierarchical representational structure:

• the symbolic level depends on the prior established of the iconic & indexical levels.
• symbols are grounded in lower layers.

Question 4

In what ways are in the relationships & correlations between iconic and indexical forms/references important for symbolic learning? And why is symbol learning hard?

Answer 4

To learn symbols, we begin by recognising iconic forms & symbol object correlations.

• word recognition is often supplemented by pairing the sound of the word with an iconic gesture.

Indexical relationships are crucial to establish the link b/w a word & its referent.

• the occurrence of the word cat is initially associated with the presence of an actual cat.

Symbols aren’t simple:

• symbol learning is not the just the probability co-occurrence with the referent.
• Rather, a complex function of r/ship that a symbol has to other symbols in a symbolic system - web of symbols.
• Words with similar meanings are often used alternatively
• Words with different meanings tend to be adjacent to one another in sentences.
• The frequency with which specific word combinations are repeated is extremely low

Question 5

Describe Sue Savage-Rumbaugh’s (S-SR) symbolic learning studies with chimps & the key takeaways.

Answer 5

AIM: Interested in associative learning of symbol & meaning, as opposed to the rote position learning (conditioning). Interested in meaning learning, not syntax learning.

• Request task: symbol-object pairings by “show banana, select correct lexigram for the banana, get banana.”
  
  • But knowing how to use a symbol to get a banana is different from knowing the symbol means banana -> motivated by reward
• Fading technique (naming): to make distinction b/w naming & requesting, a _gradual de-coupling the name from the presence of the objec_t was produced. Chimps could refer to the object w/o expecting to receive it.
  
  • Generalised spontaneously for other foods - apples etc - no fading required.
• Hiding Task for Symbolic Communication:
  
  • SSR enter room with food item hidden in a container.
  • Press lexigram on a computer that matched the hidden food.
  • Chimps needed to press same lexigram to receive the food.
  • Only one chimp knows what food item it is (informer)
  • Needs to tell the other (responder) what item is - then they also need to press lexigram to receive.
• Tools & Food Box Paradigm.
  
  • One chimp has tools, other had food box.
  • Requester & Responder.
  • Chimps share, spontaneously, getting food reward.
• Takeaway:
  
  • apes can comprehend symbols but production does not lead to spontaneous comprehension.
  • In order to function representationally, the symbols learned must become decontextualised & freed for use in novel situations
  • Apes can use symbols to communicate with each other if they develop skills of joint attention and if their environment places a premium on cooperation.
  • referential comprehension (symbolic reference) is a prerequisite to the production of syntax

Question 6

How did Skinner argue that his pigeons were the same as Sherman and Austin? What are the two important differences in the examples?

Answer 6

Taught two pigeons to communicate about the colour of an illuminated light that is out of sight for one of the pigeons. Skinner argued performance was equivalent.

But;

• Apes behaviours were displayed on the first trial on the basis of preceding work done to _establish the components of true communicatio_n - requestion, naming, listening.
• Pigeons taught each step in sequence & were not required to be aware of what the other was doing.