1
Q
Describe the structure of the nucleus
A
- Nuclear envelope contains nuclear pores
- Contains chromatin (the genetic material), consisting of DNA wrapped around histone proteins- this is spread out/extended when cell is not dividing. Coils/condenses into chromosomes when about to divide
2
Q
Describe the function of the nucleus
A
- The nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell
- In some regions the outer and inner nuclear membranes fused together- at these points, some dissolved substances and ribosome’s can pass through
- the pores enable larger substances such as messenger RNA [mRNA] to leave the nucleus. Substances, such as some steroid hormones, may enter the nucleus, from the cytoplasm via these pores
- the nucleolus is where ribosomes are made
- Chromosomes contain the organism’s genes
In summary, the nucleus:
- is the control centre of the cell
- stores the organism’s genome
- transmits genetic information
- provides the instructions for protein synthesis
3
Q
Describe the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER]
A
- a system of membranes, containing fluid-filled cavities [cisternae] that are continuous with the nuclear membrane
- coated with ribosome’s
4
Q
Describe the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER]
A
- the intracellular transport system: the cisternae form channels for transporting substances from one area of a cell to another
- provides a large surface area for ribosome’s, which assemble amino acids into proteins. These proteins then actively pass through the membrane into the cisternae and are transported to the golgi apparatus for modification and packaging
5
Q
Describe the structure of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum [SER]
A
- a system of membranes, containing fluid-filled cavities [cisternae] that are continuous with the nuclear membrane
- there are no ribosome’s on its surface
6
Q
Describe the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum [SER]
A
- contains enzymes that catalyse reactions involved with lipid metabolism such as:
- synthesis of cholesterol
- synthesis of lipid’s/ phospholipids needed by the cell
- synthesis of steroid hormones
- involved with absorption, synthesis and transport of lipid’s from the gut
7
Q
Describe the structure of the Golgi apparatus
A
- consist of a stack of membrane-bound flattened sacks
- secretory vesicles bring materials to and from the golgi apparatus
8
Q
Describe the function of the Golgi apparatus
A
- proteins are modified, for example by:
- adding sugar molecules to make glycoproteins
- adding lipid molecules to make lipoproteins
- being folded into their 3D shape
- then, proteins are packaged into vesicles that are pinched off and then:
- stored in the cell
- or moved to the plasma membrane, either to be incorporated into the plasma membrane or exported outside of the cell
9
Q
Describe the structure of mitochondria (a mitochondrion)
A
- These may be spherical, rod-shaped or branched, and are 2-5 micrometers long
- They are surrounded by 2 membranes, with a fluid-filled space between them
- the inner membrane is highly folded into cristae
- the inner part of the mitochondrion is a fluid-filled matrix
10
Q
Describe the function of mitochondria (a mitochondrion)
A
- Mitochondria are the site of ATP (energy currency) production during aerobic respiration
- They are self-replicating, so more can be made if the cells energy needs increase
- They are abundant in cells where much metabolic activity takes place, for example in liver cells and at synapses between neurones and where neurotransmitter is synthesised and released
11
Q
Describe the structure of chloroplasts
A
- They are large organelles- 4-10 micrometres long
- They are found only in plant cells and some protoctists
- They are surrounded by a double membrane (envelope)
- The inner membrane is continuous with stacks of flattened membrane sacks called thylakoids which contain chlorophyll
- each sack or pile of thylakoids is called a granum (plural grana)
- The fluid-filled matrix is the stroma
- Chloroplasts contain loops of DNA and starch grains
12
Q
Describe the function of chloroplasts
A
- Site of protein synthesis
- The first stage of photosynthesis, where light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and used to make ATP, occurs in the grana. Water is also split to supply hydrogen ions.
- The second stage, when hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide (using energy from ATP) to make carbohydrates, occurs in the stroma
- Chloroplasts are abundant in leaf cells, particularly the palisade mesophyll layer
13
Q
Describe the structure of the vacuole
A
- surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast
- Contains fluid
14
Q
Describe the function of the vacuole
A
- Only plant cells have a large, permanent vacuole
- It is filled with water and solutes and maintains cell stability, because when full it pushes against the cell wall, making it turgid
- if all the plat cells are turgid, this heps to support the plant, especially in non-woody plants
15
Q
Describe the structure of lysosomes
A
- small bags, formed by the Golgi apparatus
- each is surrounded by a single membrane
- Contain powerful hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes
- Abundant in phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and macrophages (types of white blood cells) that can ingest and digest invading pathogens such as bacteria
16
Q
Describe the function of lysosomes
A
- Lysosomes keep the powerful hydrolytic enzymes separate from the rest of the cell
- Lysosomes can engulf old cell organelles and foreign matter, digest them and return the digested components to the cell to reuse
17
Q
Describe the structure of cilia and undulipodia
A
- Protrusions from the cell and are surrounded by the cell surface membrane
- Each contains microtubules
- Formed from centrioles
18
Q
Describe the function of cilia and undulipodia
A
- The epithelial cells lining your airways each have many hundreds of cilia that beat and move the band of mucus
- Nearly all cell types in the body have one cilium that acts as an antenna- it contains receptors and allows the cells to detect signals about its immediate environment
- The only type of human cell to have an undulipodium (a long cilium) is a spermatozoon- it allows it to move
19
Q
Which organelles don’t have membranes
A
- ribosomes
- centrioles
- cytoskeleton
- cellulose cell wall
20
Q
Describe the structure of ribosomes
A
- Small, spherical organelles, about 20nm in diameter
- made of ribosomal RNA
- Made in the nucleolus, as 2 separate subunits, which pass through the nuclear envelope into the cell cytoplasm and then combine
- some remain free in the cytoplasm and some attach to the endoplasmic reticulum
21
Q
Describe the function of ribosomes
A
- ones bound to the exterior of RER are mainly for synthesising proteins that will be exported outside the cell
- ones free in the cytoplasm for proteins used inside cell
22
Q
Describe the structure of centrioles
A
- Consist of 2 bundles of microtubules at right angles to each other
- the microtubules are made of tubulin protein subunits, and are arranged to form a cylinder
23
Q
Describe the function of centrioles
A
- Before a cell divides, the spindle (made of threads of tubulin) forms the centrioles
- Chromosomes attach to the middle part of the spindle and motor proteins walk along tubulin threads, pulling the chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell
Centrioles are involved in the formation of cilia and undulipodia:
- Before the cilia form, the centrioles multiply and line up beneath the cell membrane
- Microtubules then sprout outwards from each centriole, forming a cilium or undulipodium
Usually absent from cells of higher plants but bay be present in some unicellular green algae, such as Chlamydomonas
24
Q
Describe the structure of the cytoskeleton
A
A network of protein structures within the cytoplasm, consisting of:
- rod-like microfilaments made of subunits of the protein actin; they are polymers of actin and each microfilament is about 7nm in diameter
- intermediate filaments about 10 nm in diameter
- straight, cylindrical microtubules, made of protein subunits called tubulin- about 18-30nm in diameter
- the cytoskeletal motor proteins (myosins, kinesins and dyneins) are molecular motors. They are also enzymes and have a site that binds to and allows hydrolysis of ATP as their energy soure
25
Describe the function of the cytoskeleton
The protein microfilaments within the cytoplasm give support and mechanical strength, keep the cells chape stable, and allow cell movement
Microtubules also provide shape and support to cells and help substances move through the cytoplasm within a cell
- they form the track along which motor proteins (dynein and kinesin) walk and drag organelles from one part of a cell to another
- they form the spindle before a cell divides- these spindle threads allow chromosomes to be loved up within the cell
- microtubules also make up the cilia, undulipodia and centrioles
Intermediate filaments are made of a variety of proteins- They:
- anchor the nucleus within the cytoplasm
- extend between cells in some tissues, between special junctions, enabling cell-cell signalling and allowing cells to adhere to a basement membrane, therefore stabilising tissues
26
Describe the structure of the cellulose cell wall
- cell wall of plants is made out of plasma membrane- it is made from cellulose fibres
27
Describe the function of the cellulose cell wall
Absent from animal cells, the cell all is strong and can prevent plant cells from bursting when turgid (swollen)
The cell walls of plant cells:
- provide strength and support
- maintain the cell's shape
- contribute to the strength and support of the whole plant
- are permeable and allow solutions (solute and solvent) to pass through
Fungi have cell walls that contain chitin, not cellulose
28
Which organelle is found only in animal cells
-lysosomes
29
Which organelles are found only in plant cells
- Chloroplast
- cell wall
- large, permanent vacuole
- amyloplast containing starch
30
Describe the interrelationships between the organelles involved in the production and secretion of a protein
- mRNA copy the gene in the nucleus using complementary bases
- mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores
- mRNA attaches to ribosome
- ribosome reads instructions to assemble protein
- Protein travels through the cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
- protein pinched off in vesicles and travels to Golgi apparatus
- vesicle fuses with Golgi apparatus
- Golgi apparatus modifies protein
- packaged molecules pinched off in vesicle from Golgi apparatus, moves towards the plasma membrane
- vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane
- plasma membrane opens to release molecule (exocytosis)
31
What are the similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
They have:
- a plasma membrane
- cytoplasm
- ribosomes for assembling amino acids into proteins
- DNA and RNA
32
How are prokaryotic cells different to eukaryotic cells
- They are smaller
- They have a much less well-developed cytoskeleton with n centrioles
- don't have a nucleus
don't have membrane-bound organelles eg. mitochondria, ER, chloroplasts or Golgi apparatus
- Have a wall that is made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose
- have smaller ribosomes
-Have naked DNA that is not wound around histone proteins but floats free in the cytoplasm, as a loop (not linear chromosomes)
33
What do some prokaryotic cells also have
- a protective waxy capsule surrounding their cell wall
- small loops of DNA, called plasmids, as well as the main large loop of DNA
- Flagella- long, whip-like projections that enable them to move- different structures to undulipodia
- Pili- smaller hair-like projections that enable the bacteria to adhere to host cells or to each other, and allow the passage of plasmid DNA from one cell to another
34
Magnification equation
Size of image / actual size
35
How does a light/optical microscope work
- Uses visible light (e.m spectrum 400-700 nm wavelength)to pass through the object
- creates a magnified image through the use of a series of glass lenses
36
What is the magnification of a light/optical microscope
x1500 - x2000
37
What is the resolution of a light/optical microscope
200nm (low)
38
What type of image can you see in a light/optical microscope
- colour
- low resolution
- 2D
39
What are examples of what you can see through a light/optical microscope
- amoeba
- onion epidermis cell
- human ovum
- human cheek cell
- mitochondria
- chloroplast
- bacterium
40
Advantages of light/optical microscopes
- cheap
- easy to use
- portable in field/laboratory
- study whole living specimens
- see colour
41
disadvantages of light/optical microscopes
- low resolution
- low magnification
- 2D
42
How does a laser scanning/confocal microscope work
- uses laser light to scan an object point by point and assemble, by computer, the pixel information into one image on screen
43
What is the magnification of a laser scanning/confocal microscope
x400-x1000
44
What is the resolution of a laser scanning/confocal microscope
270 nm
45
What type of image can you see in a laser scanning/confocal microscope
- 3D
- Colour
- Depth selectivity
46
What are examples of what you can see through a laser scanning/confocal microscope
- Medical use eg. observe fungal filaments on cornea
47
Advantages of laser scanning/confocal microscopes
- Depth selectivity
- high resolution
- high contrast
- can be used in diagnosis- better treatment
- effective biological research
48
disadvantages of laser scanning/confocal microscopes
- expensive
| - uses stain- can alter organelles
49
What do all electron microscopes use to work
- beam of fast travelling electrons with a wavelength of about 0.004nm
- fired on a cathode and focused by magnets
- wavelength 125000 times smaller than central part of visible light spectrum- better resolution
50
How do transmission electron microscopes work
- specimen chemically fixed by being dehydrated and stained
- Beam of electrons passes through specimen (which is stained with metal salts) and are focused on screen or photographic plate
- electrons form 2D black and white image - electron micrograph
51
Magnification of transmission electron microscopes
x 2 million
52
Resolution of transmission electron microscopes
0.1 nm
53
What image can you see from a transmission electron microscope
- 2D
- Black and white
- High resolution
54
What are examples of what you can see from electron microscopes
Atoms, lipids, ribosomes, proteins, everything from light microscope
55
Advantages of electron microscopes
- high resolution
- high magnification
- see very small structures
- internal view
56
disadvantages of transmission electron microscopes
- expensive
- large
- train to use
57
How do scanning electron microscopes work
- electrons cause secondary electrons to 'bounce off' specimens surface and be focused on scree
- specimen vacuumed (allows electrons to travel unimpeded) and coated in fine film of metal
58
Magnification of scanning electron microscopes
x200,000
59
Resolution of scanning electron microscopes
0.1nm
60
What type of image can you see through a scanning electron microscope
- 3D
| - Black and white but a computer can add colour
61
Advantages of scanning electron microscopes
- 3D
| - rest same as TEM
62
What are things to remember while drawing a microscopy image
- continuous lines
- no arrowheads
- no shading
- ruler to lable
63
What do some microscopes use to produce an image without staining
- light interference- dark background- illuminated specimen shows- adjust iris diaphragm to reduce illumination
Useful for studying living organisms
64
What are stains
- Coloured chemicals that bind to molecules in or on the specimen, making it easy to see- bind to specific cell structures- possible to differenciate
65
Why do scientists use stains
- provides contrast
- see more detail
- identify different organelles
66
What are different satins and what they are used to see
- methylene blue- all-purpose
- acetic orcein binds to DNA and stains chromosomes dark red
- eosin stains cytoplasm
- Sudan red stains lipids
- iodine in potassium iodide solution stains cellulose in plant cell walls yellow, and starch granules blue/black (violet under a microscope)
67
How do scientists prepare sections of specimens
- dehydrate specimens
- embed them in wax to prevent distortion during slicing
- use a special instrument to make very thin slices (sections)- then stained and mounted in special chemical to preserve them
68
Why may organisms look different through a microscope
- organelles vary in shape
- could be deformed in preparation
- absent from section
- longitudinal (lengthways) / transverse(crossways) / obliquely (slanting) sliced section will have different shapes
