4.3.1 Issues And Debates

Question 1

What is bias?

Answer 1

Any factor (eg. Attitudes, beliefs or behaviours) that interferes with the validity of the research process

Question 2

How does a bias form?

Answer 2

Because psychologists hold existing beliefs and values that have been influenced by the social and historical context which they live in.

Question 3

How can researcher beliefs be biased?

Answer 3

If they lean towards a subjective view that does not reflect objective reality

Question 4

What can bias lead to in conclusions from research?

Answer 4

Researchers forming conclusions which favour universality

Question 5

What is universality?

Answer 5

The assumption that one perspective or set of attitudes or behaviours is the norm, and can be applied to all human beings despite differences in experience.

Question 6

How does universality differ from nomothetic research?

Answer 6

Nomothetic approach to research is the research methodology used to achieve universality in the findings

Question 7

How can universality occur in research?

Answer 7

If the researcher has not considered the fact that the findings may not apply to all human beings, due to differences in experience and behaviour.

Question 8

What is gender bias?

Answer 8

Occurs when a psychological study or theory offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of both men and women. This occurs due to favour of one gender or discrimination of one gender.

Question 9

What are the three types of gender bias?

Answer 9

Alpha bias
Beta bias
Androcentrism

Question 10

What is alpha bias?

Answer 10

When research or psychological theory over-emphasises the difference between males and females and presents them as fixed and inevitable

Question 11

How is alpha bias normally seen in research?

Answer 11

Alpha bias usually favours males and de-values females (likely because most psychological research has been conducted by males).
However, this isn’t always the case as female values may be heightened too.
The research allows no flexibility and concludes that these differences are inevitable.

Question 12

Give an example of a psychological theory that shows an alpha bias favouring males?

Answer 12

Freud’s psychodynamic theory
Psychosexual stages of development
States that women develop a weaker superego than men because they do not experience castration anxiety as males do.
This means women do not identify as strongly with their same-sex parent.
Suggests women are morally inferior to men, which exaggerates the difference between males and females.

Question 13

What is beta bias?

Answer 13

When research or psychological theory ignores or downplays the differences between males and females, and instead focuses extensively on the similarities between them.

Question 14

How can beta bias occur in research?

Answer 14

When findings from research using participants of only one gender are generalised to both genders

Question 15

Give an example of research that carries a beta bias

Answer 15

The fight-or-flight response
Originally believed that women respond in the same way as men to real or perceived threats
Didn’t include women in research studies which ignores hormonal differences between males and females
Taylor et al recently suggested women are more likely to show a tend and befriend response, due to higher levels of oxytocin and increased production of oxytocin during the stress response. This means women have more of a preference to protect their offspring and form alliances (an evolved response for looking after others)

Question 16

What is androcentrism?

Answer 16

Male-centred
When normal behaviour is judged according to male standards

Question 17

How has androcentrism occured?

Answer 17

The past and perpetuating worldview that is persistently male

Question 18

What are the negative consequences of androcentrism?

Answer 18

Leads to female behaviour being deemed as abnormal or at worst, pathologised (taken as a sign of illness)
Females labelled as abnormal or even unwell

Question 19

Give an example of androcentrism in research?

Answer 19

Zimbardo used an all-male sample to study conformity to social roles
Means his findings do not represent how females conform to social roles so are not generalisable to females

Question 20

Give an example of how androcentrism can lead to mislabelling or pathologising of women?

Answer 20

Premenstrual syndrome
It medicalises women’s emotions by explaining them in terms of hormones
This occurs because the standards are based on men who do not experience the same hormonal changes

Question 21

What is cultural bias?

Answer 21

A tendency of psychological research or theory to favour the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of one culture over another, or to discriminate against one culture based on the norms of another.

Question 22

Why is culture bias a problem?

Answer 22

Means that people from other cultures are not represented in research, so findings are not universal and cannot be generalised worldwide.
Also leads to labelling of other cultures as abnormal, unusual or inferior based on the standards of another culture.

Question 23

What are the two types of cultural bias?

Answer 23

Ethnocentrism
Cultural relativism

Question 24

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 24

When psychological research or theory judges one culture by the standards of another, due to the belief that one culture is superior to others.

Question 25

What does ethnocentrism lead to?

Answer 25

The belief that one’s own culture is superior to other cultures which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures

Question 26

Give an example of a psychological study that shows ethnocentrism

Answer 26

Ainsworth’s strange situation Findings only represent attachment styles found in western cultures. Suggested that the ideal attachment type was secure attachment, characterised by moderate amounts of separation and stranger anxiety. Leads to misrepresentation that children in non-western countries do not form ideal attachments to their primary caregivers. For example, in collectivist countries children are used to being cared for by many people, and Japanese children are more likely to experience severe separation distress due to less frequent separation from their mothers. Means these culture’s children are deemed to have abnormal attachments to caregivers based on western standards

Question 27

What is the main problem of unchecked ethnocentrism?

Answer 27

Imposed etic

Question 28

What is an imposed etic?

Answer 28

When findings from one culture are generalised to other cultures, ignoring the distinct differences between cultures.

Question 29

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 29

The idea that norms and values within one culture can only be understood from within that culture alone.

Question 30

What is the difference between an etic and an emic?

Answer 30

An etic looks at behaviour of a given culture and attempts to generalise these behaviours universally, whereas an emic looks at behaviour within a given culture and applies the findings to understand this culture only.

Question 31

Therefore, what is the difference between cultural relativism and ethnocentrism?

Answer 31

Ethnocentric research carries an imposed etic whereas cultural relativism takes an emic approach

Question 32

Give an example of research which is culturally relative

Answer 32

In western cultures, hearing voices would be interpeted as a symptom of schizophrenia (hallucination) However, in other cultures (Haiti) hearing voices is believed to be communication from ancestors Cultural relativism means that we do not judge people from non-western cultures as schizophrenic based on hearing voices

Question 33

What is a problem with culturally relative research?

Answer 33

Does not have universality Cannot be generalised to explain behaviours worldwide, across all cultures and people Limited in what we can learn about how humans behave worldwide

Question 34

What is the free will-determinism debate?

Answer 34

A debate which aims to answer the question as to whether humans choose their own behaviours without constraints or whether behaviour is a product of internal and/or external forces over which they have no control.

Question 35

What is free will?

Answer 35

The notions that humans are actively in control of their own behaviours and outcomes without constraint

Question 36

What is determinism?

Answer 36

The view that human behaviours and outcomes are shaped by internal and/or external forces over which we have no control

Question 37

Which appproach takes a free will approach and explain how?

Answer 37

Humanistic approach Believes humans can strive to self-actualise by changing their behaviours to better themselves Also believes they can choose to behave in a way that reduces incongruence between their ideal self and self-concept

Question 38

Which approaches take a deterministic approach and why?

Answer 38

Behaviourism takes an environmentally determinism approach and argues all behaviour is shaped by the environment SLT takes a reciprocal determinism stance that behaviours are shaped by the environment and our personal beliefs Cognitive approach takes a soft determinism stance as behaviour is determined by internal mental processes that are restricted to our conscious awareness Biological approach takes a biological determinism stance as believes all behaviours are biologically innate and inherited Psychodynamic approach takes a psychic determinism stance as believes all behaviours are driven by unconscious forces and drives

Question 39

How does the free will-determinism debate view autonomy?

Answer 39

A deterministic approach rejects autonomy over behaviour, whereas the free will approach accepts that there are external influences on behaviour but we have the autonomy to either accept or reject them

Question 40

What are the two main types of determinism?

Answer 40

Hard determinism Soft determinism

Question 41

What is hard determinism?

Answer 41

The view that all behaviour is caused by either internal or external factors over which we have no control. It is an example of fatalism

Question 42

What is fatalism?

Answer 42

The belief that all events are inevitable and predetermined

Question 43

What is soft determinism?

Answer 43

The view that behaviour is caused by internal and external factors but there is room for free will and choice within a restricted constraint of possibilities.

Question 44

In what way does soft determinism recognise free will?

Answer 44

It believes that behaviour can be influenced by thoughts, emotions and reflection- therefore exercising some control over our own behaviour.

Question 46

What is biological determinism?

Answer 46

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control eg. Genetics, hormones and neurotransmitters

Question 47

What it environmental determinism?

Answer 47

The belief that behaviour is determined by environmental factors (eg. Reward and punishment) that we cannot control

Question 48

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 48

The belief that behaviour is determined by unconscious forces or drives that we cannot control, and these are derived from repressed conflicts

Question 49

How can the free will-determinism debate be applied to science?

Answer 49

A scientific research approach aims to establish causal laws of behaviour that can be applied to all individuals- meaning it believes all behaviours are a result of cause and effect, therefore taking a hard determinism stance.

Question 50

Why does scientific research take a hard determinism stance?

Answer 50

Because it enables them to predict and control behaviours that apply to all people to establish cause and effect

Question 51

Why does scientific research use laboratory studies?

Answer 51

Enables researchers to demonstrate causal relationships by controlling all other variables This increases credibility of research

Question 52

Why are cause and effect relationships useful in science?

Answer 52

They make it easier to predict and control behaviours in future studies (ie. Generate hypotheses and eliminate extraneous variables)

Question 53

Give an example of the free will-determinism debate in psychology

Answer 53

The behaviourist approach believes all behaviour is determined by the environment so takes an environmental determinism stance, whereas the humanistic approach believes humans can choose to become a better person through their behaviours so takes a free will stance

Question 54

What is the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 54

A debate which discusses the relative contributions of nature and nurture factors in determining human behaviour

Question 55

What is nature?

Question 56

Why does the nature-nurture debate not argue that behaviour is determined entirely by nature or nurture?

Answer 56

Because psychologists know that behaviours occur due to a contribution of both nature and nurture factors, so the debate instead focuses on which one is more influential in determining human behaviour.

Question 57

What is nature?

Answer 57

Inherited and innate influences on behaviour, meaning behaviour is a product of genetic influences

Question 58

How does the nature side of the debate believe behaviour must be understood?

Answer 58

By studying biological structures and processes eg. Genes, neurotransmitters, hormones and brain regions

Question 59

What is nurture?

Answer 59

The influence of the environment and experiences on human behaviour, stating that behaviour is learned

Question 60

How does the nurture side of the debate believe behaviour must be understood?

Answer 60

By studying the environmental factors that influence behaviour eg. Conditioning, consequences, upbringing, relationships, education and trauma etc.

Question 61

Give an example of the naute-nurture debate in psychological research

Answer 61

Attachment formation Bowlby’s monotropic theory argues that attachment formation occurs due to an innate drive (nature) to form an attachment, whereas learning theory argues that a child learns (nurture) to form an attachment to the caregiver who feeds them most.

Question 62

What is the interactionist approach?

Answer 62

An explanation for behaviour which states that behaviour is a product of the interaction between nature and nurture factors

Question 63

Which model represents the interactionist approach?

Answer 63

The diathesis-stress model

Question 64

What is the diathesis stress model?

Answer 64

A model which suggests that behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability (diathesis) which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger (stress).

Question 65

Give an example of a diathesis stress model in psychology

Answer 65

Interactionist explanation for schizophrenia Schizophrenia occurs due to a biological or psychological vulnerability AND an environmental trigger

Question 66

What are epigenetics?

Answer 66

Changes in gene expression without changes to the alleles we possess, caused by interactions with the environment that switch genes on or off

Question 67

Why is epigenetics relevant to the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 67

It introduces a third element to the debate- the life experiences of previous generations

Question 68

How is the nature-nurture debate studied?

Answer 68

Twin studies + concordance for MZ vs DZ twins Heritability coefficient- determines extent of genetic influence on behaviour (proportion of differences in behaviours that is caused by genetics)

Question 69

What is the holism-reductionism debate?

Answer 69

A debate which questions whether a holistic approach or a reductionist approach is the better way to understand and explain human behaviour.

Question 70

What is holism?

Answer 70

An argument or theory which proposes that human behaviour should be studied by taking all aspects of an individual into account and studying it as an indivisible system.

Question 71

What is reductionism?

Answer 71

The theory or approach which states that human behaviour should be studied and understood by breaking it down into its component parts and studying each constituent element separately and individually.

Question 72

Why is there no continuum in the holism-reductionism debate?

Answer 72

Because a behaviour can either be broken down or studied as one As soon as a behaviour is broken down it becomes reductionist, so unless it is whole it cannot be holistic

Question 73

Which approach takes a holistic approach and why?

Answer 73

Humanistic approach Takes a person-centred approach and believes behaviour can only be understood by studying the whole person

Question 74

Which approaches are reductionist and explain how?

Answer 74

Behaviourists- environmental reductionism as break behaviour down to stimulus-response units SLT- environmental reductionism as breaks behaviour down into stimulus response units Cognitive- machine reductionism as explains behaviour in terms of theoretical and computer models in a series of seperate processes Biological- biological reductionism as breaks behaviour down into individual genes, structures, neurotransmitters etc. Psychodynamic- reductionism as behaviour reduced to focus on early childhood experiences and unconscious processes only

Question 75

What methods does a holistic approach use?

Answer 75

Qualitative methods eg. Unstructured interviews, case studies, observations

Question 76

Why is a holistic approach useful to understand human behaviour?

Answer 76

Because it considers all of the possible factors that may contribute to a particular behaviour and therefore all of the various different explanation for it

Question 77

Give an example of a study which takes a holistic approach

Answer 77

Rutter’s Romanian orphan studies Used a longitudinal design to track the physical, cognitive, social and emotional development of adopted Romanian orphans This means it took into account an array of factors that could have influenced the orphans’ development Therefore it acknowledged that development is a multi-factorial, rich and complex experience which occurs on many different levels, unique to individuals Means it can only be understood by considering all aspects of an individual’s experience

Question 78

Why is a reductionist approach to explaning behaviour useful?

Answer 78

It is more scientific as it enables behaviours to be broken down into independent and dependant variables which can be manipulated Means behaviours can be studied scientifically to establish cause and effect relationships

Question 79

Give an example of a reductionist theory in psychology

Answer 79

The multi-store model of memory Breaks down memory into three stores: sensory register, short term memory, and long term memory Therefore aims to understand the complex idea of human memory by breaking it down into seperate stores which can each be studied individually

Question 80

What are levels of explanation?

Answer 80

The idea that there are several ways to explain behaviour, arranged in a hierarchy with most reductionist at the bottom and least reductionist at the top

Question 81

What are the levels of explanation ordered based upon?

Answer 81

How reductionist they are based on the specific methods and criteria used to measure behaviours

Question 82

What are the levels of hierarchy in psychology in order?

Answer 82

Sociocultural explanations- based on a wide range of factors (most holistic) Psychological explanations- based on thoughts, beliefs and processing Environmental theories- learning explanations Biological theories- neurochemical and physiological explanations (most reductionist)

Question 83

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 83

The idea that human behaviour can be understood by studying individual brain structures, neurotransmitters and genes

Question 84

Give an example of biological reductionism in psychology

Answer 84

The dopamine hypothesis as an explanation for schizophrenia States that schizophrenia caused by abnormal dopamine levels- ignores other factors eg. Glutamate, family dysfunction etc

Question 85

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 85

The idea that human behaviour can be understood by studying environmental experiences through stimulus-response processes

Question 86

Give an example of environmental reductionism in psychology

Answer 86

Learning theory of attachment Reduces the idea of attachment between the baby and caregiver to a learned association between the caregiver feeding them (neutral stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus) resulting in pleasure (conditioned response) Reductionist as ignores other factors that contribute to attachment formation eg. Innate attachments, hormones, love etc.

Question 87

What is the idiographic-nomothetic debate?

Answer 87

The debate which questions whether it is better to study human behaviour using an idiographic or a nomothetic approach

Question 88

What is an idiographic approach?

Answer 88

An approach to studying human behaviour by studying individuals in detail, in order to obtain lots of information about their subjective experience and thus understand their experience better

Question 89

How does the idiographic approach study human behaviour?

Answer 89

Use method triangulation (a range of methods) to get detailed understanding By gathering subjective evidence from one individual or a small group in lots of detail Qualitative evidence gathered Uses methods such as case studies and unstructured interviews which treat people as unique individuals

Question 90

What is the nomothetic approach?

Answer 90

An approach to studying human behaviour which aims to discover general laws of behaviour which can be applied to all humans.

Question 91

How does the nomothetic approach study human behaviour?

Answer 91

Studying people in groups with large sample sizes so findings are generalisable Studies a wide range of people so samples are representative and therefore findings are generalisable Using controlled conditions (lab studies) so general cause and effect relationships can be established

Question 92

Why is idiographic research useful?

Answer 92

Collects rich, meaningful and insightful data so we get a detailed understanding of the complex and unique nature of human experience Data can be used to apply or help others who are going through similar experiences (ie. It is somewhat generalisable)

Question 93

Example of idiographic research in psychology

Answer 93

Carl Rogers study of the importance of unconditional positive regard Studied through detailed conversations with his patients in therapy sessions Helped him understand the importance of unconditional positive regard in reducing incongruence between the self concept and the ideal self

Question 94

Why is a nomothetic approach useful?

Answer 94

Able to generate general laws of behaviour so can understand their behaviour of a wide range of people Data tends to withstand statistical analysis so is significant It is scientific as establishes cause and effect relationships

Question 95

Give an example of a nomothetic approach in psychological research

Answer 95

The use of antipsychotics to treat schizophrenia Research that they are effective in a sample of individuals eg Kahn and Cole et al, generalised to whole population of people with schizophrenia Means both typical and atypical antipsychotics widely prescribed to treat schizophrenia symptoms in many individual situations Therefore nomothetic as a general treatment applied in many individual situations

Question 96

Explain why the nomothetic approach is objective?

Answer 96

Because laws of behaviour are only possible if the research methodology is standardised and objective It ensures replications are possible across samples to confirms that laws are generalisable to all people

Question 97

Explain why the idiographic approach is subjective

Answer 97

Because it believes that subjective experiences of individuals are needed to understand human behaviour It emphasises the importance of human experience and context, meaning subjective experiences need to be studied to learn about their behaviour

Question 98

What are ethical implications?

Answer 98

The consequences of research studies and theories in terms of how they affect individual participants or groups within society.

Question 99

When can ethical implications occur in psychological research?

Answer 99

When research findings are published

Question 100

What are the dilemmas researchers face when aiming to keep research ethical? (In terms of ethical ISSUES)

Answer 100

How much to tell participants so as to give them informed consent and not deception, but still ensure the findings are valid To what extent the participants can be put under stressful conditions without it becoming a violation of their right to be protected from physical or psychological harm

Question 101

How is ethical standard maintained in psychological research in the UK?

Answer 101

Ethical guidelines are overseen by the British psychological society which ensure that both the participants and the researcher are protected by ethical guidelines

Question 102

What ethical ISSUES can occur during the research process?

Answer 102

Lack of informed consent Lack of protection from harm Deception Lack of awareness of right to withdraw Lack of confidentiality and privacy

Question 103

What ethical implications can occur after research has been published?

Answer 103

Social sensitivity

Question 104

What is social sensitivity?

Answer 104

When research carries the risk of potential negative consequences or implications for certain groups within society as a result of the research findings

Question 105

What are the two ways social sensitivity can occur?

Answer 105

To the participants directly involved in the research To the wider target population represented by the participants

Question 106

Give an example of an ethical implication to the participants directly into psychological research

Answer 106

Zimbardo’s stamford prison experiment Guards faced judgement for behaviour after the study and were deemed to be aggressive and ruthless by many people (wasn’t made clear that it was situational and not dispositional)

Question 107

Give an example of an ethical implication to wider society in psychological research

Answer 107

Differential association theory as an explanation for offending behaviour Socially sensitive as states that associations with pro-crime individuals leads to offending behaviour Leads to harmful stereotyping that those living in poverty or in crime-ridden areas are going to become offenders Means people avoid associating with them due to harmful stereotyping and can be deemed to justify discriminatory practices against such people

Question 108

Why can socially sensitive research sometimes be beneficial?

Answer 108

It challenges stereotypes, preconceived ideas and prejudice To refute scientific justifications that have been determined based on discrimination of certain individuals or social groups Encourages people to develop a greater understanding of minority influence

Question 109

How can researchers deal with the ethical implications of research?

Answer 109

Deal with participants correctly by considering informed consent, confidentiality and protection from harm Consider whether the phrasing of their research question could be misinterpreted and lead to social sensitivity Consider in advance how their research findings will be used and therefore what data they need to collect Consider how the research findings will be shared and whether they will be transmitted across via the media- and consider whether the media coverage could lead to harmful stereotyping

Question 110

How can gender bias in psychological research be reduced?

Answer 110

Taking a feminist approach to research (consider women’s perspectives to consider potential unique experiences of women) Take a reflexive approach (critically reflect on own biases to understand how they may affect the research process, and prevent them from doing so) Use samples consisting of both genders (so findings are generalisable to all) Actively challenge and re-evaluate theories that show alpha/beta bias by using less biased interpretations Don’t make generalisations (if a sample only includes one gender then don’t generalise findings to explain behaviour of both genders)

Question 111

How can cultural bias be reduced in psychological research?

Answer 111

Adopting cultural relativism (only attempt to understand behaviour within the culture it occurs) Using diverse samples (not WEIRD samples so generalisations can be made) Use indigenous researchers (emic research increases validity as it is more likely that behaviour is interpreted and understood properly) Reflexivity (to reflect on ones own cultural biases and how they may affect the research so they can prevent it from doing so) Emic approach (to understand a culture in isolation rather than making generalisations to improve validity)