5: Recognizing Arguments

Question 1

What is a set (or class)?

Answer 1

• a collection of “individuals” having a certain trait, property, or attribute.

Question 2

What does it mean to have consistent statements?

Answer 2

• the logical relation between a set of statements that may all be true at the same time
• “Is it possible for each statement in the set to be true at the same time?”
  
  • Water is H2O.
  • Water is not H2O.
    
    • inconsistent set of statements

Question 3

What makes some sets arguments and others nonarguments? (conceptual analysis):

Answer 3

A set of statements is an argument if and only if

1. there are two or more statements in the set, and
2. at least one statement is offered as evidence for the truth of another

Question 4

What are the two conditions of arguments?

Answer 4

1. every argument consists of exactly two subsets of statements:
   
   • evidence (premises)
   • claim (conclusion)
2. every attempt to show that a claim is true on the basis of its evidence is an attempt to show that the truth of the claim follows from the truth of its evidence.
   
   • deduction or inference

Question 5

What does it mean to have deductive statements?

Answer 5

• the logical relation between statements occurring whenever one statement is concluded to be true on the basis of another

Question 6

What are conclusion indicators?

Answer 6

• certain words and phrases that reliably (but not always) indicate the presence of an argument’s conclusion

Question 7

What are some conclusion indicators?

Answer 7

Question 8

What are premise indicators?

Answer 8

• certain words and phrases that reliably (but not always) indicate the presence of a premise

Question 9

What are some premise indicators?

Answer 9

Question 10

What is a standard form (for arguments)?

Answer 10

• a list of statements separated by a line. The numbered statements above the line are always the premises.
• The conclusion will always be the single statement written below the line to the right of the symbol ‘∴‘ (which is read “therefore”)

Question 11

What is to read actively?

Answer 11

• physically marking up a passage while you are reading it in order to reveal the logical structure of the argument it asserts
  
  • identify conclusion indicator and conclusion
  • identify premise indicators and premises, and number them.
  • Write the argument in standard form.

Question 12

Useful generalizations of arguments

Answer 12

1. An argument has exactly one conclusion and it may occur anywhere within a passage.
2. Every argument can be expressed in the form of a single conditional declarative sentence.
3. A statement is a premise or a conclusion only in relation to other statements within a particular argument.
4. Every premise is an (explicit or implicit) assumption.
5. Some conclusions are implied rather than stated explicitly.
6. Not every statement in a passage needs to be either a premise or the conclusion.
7. A passage may contain more than one argument.

Question 13

What is an assumption?

Answer 13

• a statement whose truth is presupposed but not shown
  
  • explicit assumption= an assumption that is “out in the open” for everyone too see or to hear
  • implicit assumption= something “hidden” behind what is written or said.

Question 14

What is a presupposition?

Answer 14

• an implicit assumption
  
  • No one can reasonably make an assertion without implicitly assuming (presupposing) certain basic things about the world.
  • No one can reasonably ask a question without implicitly assuming (presupposing) certain things about the world and the individual being asked the question (command or request).
• sometimes the ability to correctly evaluate an argument relies upon your ability to recognize its implicit presuppositions.

Question 15

What is an implied premise?

Answer 15

• that single implicit assumption that mediates between what is assumed explicitly and what is claimed to follow from it; any implicit assumption (presumption) in an argument

Question 16

What is an enthymeme?

Answer 16

• an argument with either an implied premise or an implied conclusion

Question 17

What is a dubious assumption?

Answer 17

• when the evidence in support of a claim explicitly or implicitly presupposes the truth of something that is both unproven and unreasonable

Question 18

What is an implied conclusion?

Answer 18

• an implicit claim
  
  • if you encounter them, write them on the margin

Question 19

What is begging the question?

Answer 19

• the error in reasoning occurring whenever a claim is assumed to be true among the evidence offered to show that the claim is true

Question 20

What is a rhetorical question?

Answer 20

• a question posed for effect, not for an answer
  
  • Never reconstruct an argument with a rhetorical question as either a premise or a conclusion.
  • questions do not have truth-value

Question 21

What is a nonargument?

Answer 21

• anything that is not an argument

Question 22

What is a proof?

Answer 22

• special kind of argument consisting of assumptions, and a series of deductions

Question 23

What is the principle of charity?

Answer 23

• give the arguer the benefit of the doubt whenever possible, and do not assume that he or she is irrational