What is physical scarcity determined by
Physical water scarcity is largely determined by climate with concentrations in high pressure latitudinal bands
- Factors such as continentality, topography and geology are also significant
- Climate change can also lead to physical scarcity
-The threshold is that 75% or more of blue water sources are being used
What is economic scarcity associated with
Economic scarcity is associated with developing countries that lack investment, technology and governance to exploit their often adequate supplies of blue water
-It makes the assumption water potential is there but is unexploited due to shortfalls in Human Resources
What are four factors affecting price of water
- Transportation of water from source to consumption (e.g in California, expensive pipes transport water from mountain reservoirs and rivers to coastal cities e,g La
- When demand>supply and water is scarce the poorest can’t afford and have to use bottled water which is more expensive (in Manila where this is 4x more expensive than piped water
- there may also be insufficient water supply due to limited infrastructure as a result of colonialism or rapid urbanisation
- In some communist and socialist countries water is subsidised so it available to all
What other factors are there affecting water price
- In many countries, water supply has been passed to private sector companies , increasing their profits but also causing supply to fall and costs for consumers to rise ( Cochabamba, Bolivia 1999 were prices rose by 20%)
- In developing countries, water is often free but not treated or local leading to women and children spending time collecting it that could be spent working
- In the 1980s the world bank and IMF gave loans to developing countries on the condition they privatised water supply, in the hope the competition would lead to reduced costs but it often led to price rises (Barranquilla Colombia)
- Water costs further vary in developing countries
- Canada charges 80% less than Germany
- Ireland only started charging in 2016
- Denmark has the most expensive water in the world (in a trial to cut consumption)
What is the water poverty index score (WPI)
- The water poverty index is calculated as a culmination of five factors : resources, access, capacity, use and environment . These are based on physical factors but can be affected by human activity
- generally higher levels of development lead to higher levels of WPI (UK 71 , Haiti 32.7)
Why is water demand increasing due to agriculture and why is it important for agriculture
- By 2050 food production will require 140% more water and 60% more food
- There is wide variation of agricultural practices worldwide ( rain fed conditions,irrigation,partial addition of groundwater or surface water
- Industrial scale irrigation began in the 1960s as part of the green revolution, but whilst increasing productivity, it has caused environmental concerns (e.g Salination of souls, damming rivers, groundwater depletion, energy usage)
- changes in diet have also put more pressure on water supplies
-New strategies (as part of green revolution phase 3) are being used to aid water conservation such as advanced drip irrigation , automated spray technology and intermediate technologies
Why is water important for energy and industry
- Nearly all forms of energy generation require water (such as thermal power generation (80% global energy) and hydropower (15% global energy) which require water
- 75% of UK water consumption is linked to energy generation
- Biofuels also use a high volumes of water (10000 litres of water are used for 1 litre of bioethanpl) causing concern as they become an alternative to fossil fuels
- Locations reliant on HEP for energy generation are being affected by decreasing amounts and changing patterns of rainfall
How is water important for human well-being
- There is a strong link between poverty and lack of safe water
- WHO states that every $1 spent on improving sanitation generates $7 of economic benefit’
- A lack of investment in water infrastructure in the developing world reduces school attendance , education, career opportunities, health and so prevents escape from the poverty trap
- The millennium drought goals (2000) aimed to halve the population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2015, but 800 million in 2016 still lacked access to treated and improve water supplies
Why does conflict occur when water supplies are inadequate
- As the risks of physical water shortages grow and a number of players wish to use the same diminishing resources, there is the potential for conflict
- Competing demands for water supplies can be for irrigation, energy, industry, domestic use, recreation and ecosystem conservation
- 263 rivers cross or form political boundaries globally
- 90% of countries share water basins with at least one other country
- Conflicts can arise at pressure points were economic development either side of the political boundary as even , so tensions build up with scarcity, stress and quality issues
- Conflicts may also arise due to infrastructure developments on shared water resources e.g dams
What is an example of two countries experiencing a pressure point
China and India dispute about the diversion of the Brahmaputra River to ease southern chinas water scarcity
What is the context to the conflict in the Nile basin
- The Nile is 6700km long, stretching across 11 countries
- It covers 10% of the African continent with the mouth at the delta into the Mediterranean Sea
- The Nile has a relatively small measured flow of 34 billion cubic metres
What sort of fluctuations of flow occur in the Nile
- Heavy monsoonal rainfall from July to September in the Blue Nile basin means it is by far the greatest contributor to lower Nile flow
- Seasonality of flow and major inter-annual and decadal fluctuations cycles as well as the impact of climate change creates flood and drought cycles in the river
- The hit and arid arras if the river basin causes high evaporation, leading to early summer pre monsoonal water shortfalls
What social changes are taking place affecting Niles water usage
- The region is experiencing widespread population pressures with 2 of Africas fasting growing cities on the Nile (Cairo and Khartoum )
- The booming population means greater demand for the Niles resources (Ethiopian population at 105 million in 2017 compared to a predicted 140 million in 2030
- The advancement in population links to increasing wealth and development, with growth in electricity production, irrigation of crops, investment, consumerism and urbanisation all indirectly increasing water supply
What did the two Nile waters agreements discuss
Nile waters agreement I (1929) -This agreed between Egypt, Sudan and Britain that 86% of the water from the Nile should go to Egypt and Sudan and Egypt could ultimately veto any modification in upstream water use in any upstream nation
-Nile waters agreement II (1959) - amendment that all water should go to Egypt and Sudan . Signed by colonial powers, with Ethiopia not acknowledging agreement
What was the outcome of these agreements
-These historic agreements unfairly allocated the Niles water and caused high tensions between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt due to imbalances in production of water, abstraction and population sizes
What is the Nile basin initiatives legacy (1999)
Since 2005, 10 countries have explored , in partnership with the world bank, the NBIs action plans, with 8/10 signing a water treaty that stated that all riparian countries should have equal rights to the Nile water (Sudan and Egypt have abstained)
What is the Grand Ethiopian renaissance dam and why has it caused conflict (GERD)
-The GERD is a dam on the Ethiopian blue Nile u dear construction since 2011 close to the Sudanese border
-It is the largest HeP plant in Africa and 7th largest in the world
-it was 60% complete in 2017 and the reservoir will take 5-15 years to fill
-Ethiopia denies the dam will have a negative downstream impact in flow and has accused Egypts criticisms as being unreasonable
(The 4.8 billion cost is 15% of Egypts GDP , it will give Ethiopia widespread electricity access and Egypt already has large scale dams such as the Aswan dam and lake nasser
What is the Jonglei canal scheme (from 1979)
- The jonglei canal scheme is a plan to speed up water flow through the sudd swamp, reducing evaporation losses
- It remains unfinished due to deteriorating Egypt Sudan relations
- Revived as part of NBI
What are the fears over all of these construction plans
-Much of the construction is done by Chinese investors, creating a new wave of Neo colonialism and adding a new player in cooperation and international relations
What is the context to the conflict for water in Murray darling basin
- The Murray darling basin conflict is an internal conflict
- The MDB covers 1 million km2 of south east Australia and is home to 2 million people
- It contains the Murray and darling rivers
What are some of the issues with supply in the MDB
- The region is generally dry (average precipitation of 500mm)
- The total flow of water is significant compared to other Australian rivers
- The region is prone to drought and the rivers have dried up completely numerous times
- Between 2006-09 the precipitation in the mountainous area of the basin was at an alll time low
What are other issues with supply in the MDB
- Between 1996-2008 parts of the basin had deficits 1.5 m below normal
- 1 degree warming in the basin leads to a 10% evaporation increase
What are the predicted effects of climate change on the basin
-Predicted affects of climate change on the basin include a 3% average annual rainfall decrease, 15% rate of Evaporation increase and 9% annual surface water flow decrease, leading to drought
What is the demand for water like the MDB basin
- The basin provides 75% of Australias water (85% of irrigation water) to contribute to 40% of nations farm produce
- The basin produces many products include cotton wheat and sheep
- The water is used agriculturally, domestically and industrially to supply Australia’s major cities in the region such as Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Brisbane and Adelaide
