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Question 1

Marr’s Levels of Analysis

Answer 1

Computation: what problem does cognition solve?
Algorithm: what processing steps does it follow?
Implementation: how is this physically carried out?

Question 2

How do we measure similarity?

Answer 2

• confusability
• reaction time
• forced choice
• likert scales

Question 3

Universal Law of Generalisation

Answer 3

The probability of generalising from one stimulus to another decreases exponentially as a function of dissimilarity.

Question 4

Goldstone 1994 study

Answer 4

• more MOPs increased similarity
• more MIPs increased similarity
• MIPs increased similarity more than MOPs

Question 5

Hodgetts and Hahn 2012 study

Answer 5

Found that square-triangle to square-square is 1 transformation, but other direction is two.

Question 6

Deductive reasoning

Answer 6

Using facts to reach a logically certain conclusion

Question 7

Inductive reasoning

Answer 7

Using facts to reach a plausible conclusion (but with room for doubt)

Question 8

Valid outcomes of deductive reasoning

Answer 8

• Modus ponens: valid argument by affirming the antecedent
• Modus tollens: valid argument by denying the consequent

Question 9

Invalid outcomes of deductive reasoning

Answer 9

• Affirming the consequent
• Denying the antecedent

Question 10

Wason selection task

Answer 10

Rule: if there’s an R on one side, there’s a 2 on the other. Which cards do u flip?
- Most people will flip R and 2, which are both affirmatory arguments (modus ponens and affirming the consequent).
- They should flip R and 7 (modus ponens and modus tollens)

Question 11

Indicative vs Deontic Arguments

Answer 11

Indicative: if this, then that.
Deontic: if this, then you should that.
People much better at checking the right things when it’s a Deontic argument

Question 12

Features of indicative arguments

Answer 12

• premise diversity (ppl accept conclusion if premise is dissimilar)
• premise-conclusion similarity (ppl accept conclusion if it is similar to premise)
• premise monotonicity (ppl accept conclusion if there are more examples)
• premise non-monotonicity (more examples makes argument weaker)

Question 13

Logical fallacies

Answer 13

• arguments from ignorance (better if in an epistemically closed system)
• circular reasoning (better if alternative is not very plausible)
• affirming consequent
• denying antecedent

Question 14

Hahn and Oaksford 2007 study

Answer 14

Found that circular arguments were found to be more believable when the alternative was less plausible.

Question 15

Social cognition and premise montonicity

Answer 15

• when world generates data, similarity between premises is irrelevant and ppl revert to premise monotonicity
• when human makes argument, similarity between premises is relevant and therefore non-monotonicity will appear

Question 16

Ransom, Perfors and Navarro study

Answer 16

Limitations: limited range of arguments and phenomena.
Results: premise non-monotonicity when relevant-relevant, neutral-relevant and neutral-random (in decreasing order), premise monotonicity when random-random

Question 17

Cognitive penetrability

Answer 17

The notion that perception can be influenced by knowledge, motivations or beliefs (New Look movement)

Question 18

New Look Movement

Answer 18

Bruner and Goodman: children estimated size of coins to be larger than identically sized discs
Proffitt et al: heavy backpacks make distances look further
Bhalla and Proffitt: tired people perceive slopes to be steeper
Things we want look closer than things we dong

Question 19

Inattentional blindness

Answer 19

Failure to notice a stimulus that would be easily noticeable if it were attended
Mack and Rock, 1998: gorilla experiment and judging cross size

Question 20

Unconscious interference and example

Answer 20

Perception arising from the minds guesswork and problem-solving.
Amodal completion: minds ability to complete views hidden behind occlusion

Question 21

Inattentional blindness and road safety

Answer 21

Scholl, Noles, Pasheva, Sussman: track 3 in 7 black circles. Red dot appeared. 70% of people not on a call noticed, but 10% of people on a call noticed.
Divided attention bad for when something unexpected happens, eg. child running across the road.

Question 22

Constructivist vs ecological approach

Answer 22

Constructivist: information received by senses is often ambiguous, so the mind actively uses clues and heuristics to construct what we experience.
Ecological: the environment contains enough disambiguating info, which we discern by actively exploring it.

Question 23

Seven sins of memory

Answer 23

• absent mindedness
• blocking (retrieval failure)
• misattribution
• persistence
• bias
• suggestibility
• transience

Question 24

Blocking

Answer 24

The feeling of there being something interfering with access to memory, even though the memories are intact.
Eg. Tip of the tongue phenomenon.

Question 25

Downsides of persistence

Answer 25

Persistence: memories not fading over time. Hyperthymestic syndrome/autobiographical memory (Jill Price) PTSD: unwanted and persistent memories of trauma

Question 26

Source monitoring

Answer 26

Keeping track of the source of our memories

Question 27

Source misattribution and example

Answer 27

Mistakes in source monitoring. Henkel and Franklin: patients saw magnifying glass and asked to imagine a lollipop. Later, they couldn’t remember which they saw vs. imagined.

Question 28

Reality monitoring framework

Answer 28

People often have trouble distinguishing memories of actual events with imagined memories.

Question 29

Consistency bias and example

Answer 29

The tendency to remember the impacts of events through the lens of their impact on us today. Eg. Bartlett’s War on Ghosts story study

Question 30

Suggestibility

Answer 30

Our memories ability to be shaped and changed through leading questions and clues. Also in emotional situations.

Question 31

Desirable difficulties

Answer 31

- retrieval practices - spaced practice - elaboration

Question 32

The generation effect

Answer 32

We better remember material that we generated ourselves than material we simply memorise.

Question 33

Testing effect

Answer 33

Roediger and Karpicke: restudying caused increased confidence, but self-testing caused increased retention.

Question 34

Biased competition

Answer 34

In cluttered environments, multiple stimuli will fall in receptive fields of overlapping neurons and will compete to drive the neural activity. Attention will bias this competition in favour of the attended info.

Question 35

Attentional network task

Answer 35

Measures: - executive attention (how well people can resolve interference from conflicting info) - spatial orienting (how well people can direct their attention to a location) - alerting (how well people can prepare to respond when anticipating a target)

Question 36

Executive attention index

Answer 36

Executive attention index = incongruent reaction time - congruent reaction time

Question 37

Attentional capture

Answer 37

When something involuntarily captures our attention.

Question 38

Value-modulated attentional capture

Answer 38

Stimuli linked with reward/punishment grab attention even when it is counterproductive.

Question 39

Contextual cueing

Answer 39

Learned patterns guide attention even when we are not aware of them. Eg. Performing better in a task that you’ve seen before even though you don’t remember seeing it.

Question 40

Attentional blink

Answer 40

The difficulty to perceive and respond to the second target stimulus amid a rapid stream of stimuli if the observer has responded to the first target stimulus within 200-500ms before the second is presented.

Question 41

Emotion-induced blindness

Answer 41

The difficulty seeing a brief target if it follows soon after an emotion distractor.

Question 42

Dot probe test

Answer 42

Just before a target appears in one of two locations, the locations are briefly occupied with an emotional and non-emotional stimulus. People are often faster at responding to the target when it subsequently appears at the location of the emotional stimulus.

Question 43

Attentional bias modification

Answer 43

An attempt to combat clinical anxiety by altering attentional biases away from more emotional stimuli through training.

Question 44

The symmetry constraint

Answer 44

The constraint: the distance from A -> B = the distance from B -> A. Similarity must be the same. However, because of asymmetrical knowledge, this is not always the case.

Question 45

Barrouillet et al. study

Answer 45

Found that adults are good with arguments abt the antecedent, less certain when the argument pertains to consequent. Meanwhile, children assume all affirmatory arguments are true.

Question 46

Two-stage account (Chun and Potter)

Answer 46

Stage 1. All items rapidly seen. Stage 2. Items held in short-lived sensory buffer, where they quickly decay unless consolidated into working memory. Consolidations proceeds one at a time.