Wundts role in the emergence of psychology as a science AO1
-Wudnt is known as the “father of psychology”
-as he established the first psychology labaratory in Leipzig Germany, marking the beginning of psychology as a seperate scientific discipline.
-he used a structuralist and reductionist approach
-the structuralist approach is analysing the basic parts of parts of the human mind through introspection
-the method known as introspection, which was the first systamatic and experimental attempt to study the mind/ mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections thoughts and images and sensations.
-This process is alligned with structuralism, which focused in analysing the structure of mental processes. Wudnt also wanted to focus on how people percieve the stimulus
-he gave participants a stimulus and asked them to report any sensations they had, this was recorded under strictly controlled conditions, and reaction times were also recorded
-for example they may have been shown a light flashing and asked to report their immediate conscious experience
-Wudnt also believed in reductionism, the idea that the mind could be simplified to simple cause and effect processes, and behaviour could be simplified into smaller measurable parts
Wundts role in the emergence of psychology as a science AO3 (STRENGTHS)
+One strength of Wudnts approach is that it pioneered psychology as a science, by using controlled environments and standardised procedures he laid the foundation for psychology to be studied using emprical methods, shifting it away from its phylosophical roots and helping establish it as an academic discipline.
+His work has had lasting influence, many of his methods such as experimental control and observation are still used in psychology today, especially when studying cognitive psychology, especially when studying mental processes such as perception and memory.
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Wundts role in the emergence of psychology as a science AO3 (WEAKNESSES)
-One weakness of Wudnt’s approach of introspection is that it relies on self report, meaning participants may lie or change their answers to appear more socially acceptable (social desirability bias) as a result this reduces the internal validity of Wudnts findings or any findings found through introspection.
-Another weakness of the introspective approach is that it is not a truly empirical method, reducing its scientific value, empirical research required data which is observable and measurable. However introspection relies on participants reporting their own internal mental processes, which cannot be directly observed by researcher. Thus findings are based on personal interpretation rather than objective measurement. Reducing objectivity of findings of research through introspection.
Key assumptions of the behaviourist approach
-assumes everyone is born as a “blank slate” apart from a few reflexes which people are born with
-behaviour is learnt from environment eg upbringing, peers, education.
-behaviour is learned through classical conditioning and also through operant conditioning.
-lab based scientific methods are the only way behaviour can be studied
-behaviours which can be directly observed can only be measured.
Classical conditioning
-Classical conditioning involves learning by association.
-Pavlov investigated classical conditioning by conducting an experiment on dogs
-Before conditioning:
The bell was a neutral stimulus (NS) and produced no response.
The food was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally produced salivation, the unconditioned response (UCR).
-During conditioning:
The neutral stimulus (bell) was repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food), which caused salivation.
-After conditioning:
The bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS).
The bell alone produced salivation, now called the conditioned response (CR).
-Conclusion:
Learning occurred through association — the dogs learned to associate the bell with food.
NOTE: Classical conditioning relies on temporal contiguity, as the conditioned stimulus must be presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus for an association to form
These experimental results can be applied to ways all different behaviours can be learnt.
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General assumptions of the behavioural model
-focused on behaviour being measured and learnt
-all behaviour is learnt and involves the same processes for animals and humans eg classical and operant conditioning
-Watson (a behaviourist) redjected introspection (suggested by Wundt) because it was too vague and difficult to measure.
-behaviourism maintains more control and objectivity within research and relies on laboratory experiments.
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning by association. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The neutral stimulus alone will eventually produce the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.
Principles of classical conditioning
Pavlov identified several principles of classical conditioning:
1. Generalisation After conditioning, stimuli similar to the CS (e.g. different tones) also produced the conditioned response.
2. Discrimination Dogs learned to respond only to the specific CS, not similar stimuli.
3. Extinction If the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the conditioned response gradually disappears.
4. Spontaneous recovery After extinction and a rest period, the CR can reappear.
5. Higher-order conditioning A new neutral stimulus can become a CS by being paired with an existing CS, not the food.
Operant conditioning
Basic idea:
Operant conditioning is learning through consequences. Skinner showed that behaviour is shaped by reinforcement and punishment using rats in a Skinner box.
Skinner’s rat study (procedure & findings):
Rats were placed in a Skinner box containing a lever. When the rat pressed the lever, it received food (positive reinforcement). As a result, lever-pressing increased. When reinforcement stopped, the behaviour gradually extinguished.
Reinforcement (increases behaviour)
Positive reinforcement:
Adding a reward to increase behaviour.
Rat received food for pressing the lever.
Negative reinforcement:
Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour.
e.g. pressing a lever to stop an electric shock.
Punishment (decreases behaviour)
Positive punishment:
Adding something unpleasant to reduce behaviour.
e.g. electric shock after lever pressing.
Negative punishment:
Removing something pleasant to reduce behaviour.
e.g. removing food access.
Role of punishment in extinguishing behaviour
Skinner argued punishment suppresses behaviour temporarily but does not remove it. Reinforcement is more effective for long-term behaviour change, as punishment may cause fear or avoidance.
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement: reward every lever press (fast learning).
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reward some presses (greater resistance to extinction).
classical conditioning AO3
+real world application: aversion therapy (uses principles of classical conditioning to replace unwanted behaviour with an aversive response by pairing the behaviour with an unpleasant stimulus.) , systematic desensitisation ( uses principles of classical conditioning to replace learned response (anxiety) with a different response (relaxation ) to a conditioned stimulus). Known effective therapies.
-classical conditioning assumes all associations are learned equally , which is not true- it ignores biological preparedness . Research suggests that humans are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily than others. Particularly those linked to survival showing classical conditioning is an incomplete explanation of learning
Operant conditioning AO3
A strength of operant conditioning it has real world applications: token economies. Token economies are based on operant conditioning involving rewarding desire able behaviours with tokens, which can later be exchanged for privileges. Used in prisons and psychiatric wards.
One weakness of operant conditioning is that is argues behaviour is maintained through reinforcement and punishment. Therefore, gendered behaviour should align with the behaviour that is most rewarded and least punished- however this explanation struggles to explain why some individuals who persist in identifying as transgender despite punishment or lack of reinforcement for gender non conforming behaviour, this suggests operant conditioning cannot explain why some behaviours are not maintained through operant conditioning .
Behaviour approach evaluation (general)
Limited ecological validity
• Many classical conditioning studies are conducted in artificial lab settings (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs).
• This makes it difficult to generalise findings to real-life human behaviour.
Environmental determinism
• Behaviourism suggests behaviour is determined entirely by the environment. • This underestimates free will and personal choice.
behaviorism gave psychology scientific credibility. The approach focused on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings.
E - Behaviourists emphasised the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication.
L- This brought the language and methods of the natural sciences into psychology, giving the subject greater credibility and status.
Based of animal studies. Cannot generalise well to humans, low external validity
Social learning theory
Bandura (1972) proposed Social Learning Theory (SLT) as an extension of behaviourism, arguing that behaviour is learned from the environment plus cognitive processes.
Learning is social rather than innate and is shaped by contexts such as home, school, and peer groups. Behaviour is learned through observation of role models, such as parents, peers, teachers, and celebrities.
Individuals are more likely to imitate high-status, older, attractive, or similar role models, for example a same-sex parent. Learning occurs via imitation and modelling of observed behaviour. Imitation is when someone copies a behaviour they have observed in another person, whereas identification is deeper than imitation and occurs when someone adopts the behaviours, values, or attitudes of a role model because they want to be like them.
Behaviour can be learned without direct reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when individuals observe others being rewarded and are motivated to copy the behaviour.
SLT also includes mediational (cognitive) processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation (ARRM), meaning that learning and performance may occur at different times.
Bobo doll study
Aim: To investigate whether children imitate aggressive behaviour observed in a role model and the effect of same-sex modelling.
Sample: 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls), aged 37–69 months, from a Stanford University nursery.
Design: Matched pairs design based on pre-rated aggression levels (rated by nursery staff).
IV: Type of model observed – aggressive, non-aggressive, or no model (control); model sex varied.
Procedure: Children observed a male or female model interacting with a Bobo doll for 10 minutes.
Aggression arousal: Children were mildly frustrated, then placed in a room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys.
Findings: Children exposed to aggressive models showed significantly more aggression; boys were more physically aggressive, girls more verbally aggressive; same-sex imitation was strongest.
Conclusion: Aggression is learned through observation and imitation, can occur after one exposure, and may be reproduced in different contexts.
Social learning theory AO3
+one strength of social learning theory is it acknowledges mediational (cognitive) processes in behaviour making it less reductionist compared to the standard behaviourist approach which ignores mental processes and simply explains behaviour in stimulus- response associations. It is a more complete approach of behaviour.
+Another strength of SLT is that Banduras Bobo doll study provides emprical support for imitation and modelling and vicarious reinforcement . Children imitated aggressive behaviour even without direct reinforcement. This supports SLT’s claim that behaviour can be learned observationally
-while it is more hollistic than other approaches, slt still focuses on environmental factors on behaviour and ignores intrinsic influences eg hormones and genes. This means SLT cannot explain behaviours with a biological basis eg agression
+social learning theory has real world applications, such as age ratings on films to limit children’s exposure to aggressive role models. According to SLT , children learn behaviour through observation and imitation, so reducing exposure may reduce likelihood of imitation. However, this application may be limited as children are still able to be exposed to aggressive role models in the media or in real life.
Bobo doll study AO3
+Lab study, matched pairs design. study was conducted in controlled environment, extraneous variables controllled, standardised procedure, children matched on levels of agression before experiment- individual differences controlled. more confident differences in agression in experimental conditions is due to what the child observed in their experimental condition rather than other factors- study has high internal validity
-Lab study artificial task, meaning the experiment lacks mundane realism and findings cannot be applied to real world scenarios. low external validity
-Ethical issues, children exposed to aggressive role models. Children observed adults behaving violently towards bobo doll and some imitated their bahaviour, showing physical and verbal agression. May have caused psychological harm by encouraging agressive tendancies in child participants who observing an agressive role model, and these agressive tendancies could potentially continue beyond the study.
The cognitive approach (general assumption)
-the basic assumtion of the cognitive approach is behaviour is influenced by internal mental processes, whether conscious and non conscious.
-mental processes are explained in terms of information processing, where information is encoded, processed/stored and retrieved.
-this processing is often compared to the functioning of a computer using processes such as input, processing and output to explain behaviour.
-the cognitive approach uses theoretical models of mental processes to represent how information flows in cognitive systems. these models are then tested allowing psychologists to scientifically investigate mental processes and make inferences from behaviour.
-One example of a model is the multi store memory model which explain memory is processed through 3 unitary stores and if not it is forgotten.
-cognitive psychologists can conduct controlled labaratory experiments, field and natural experiments to study behaviour, although mental processes cannot be directly observed, researchers can make inferences on them by measuring behavioural outcomes such as accuracy or reaction time.
-the cognitive approach also discusses schemas, mental frameworks we have that for understanding the world, they develop through experience and influence how information is interpreted remembered and responded to.
schemas.
Schemas are mental representations of experience and knowledge that act as frameworks for understanding the world. They develop through experience and influence how information is interpreted, remembered, and responded to.
3 types of schemas- role schemas- ideas about the behaviour expected from someone in a certain role or setting, event schemas which contains information on what would happen in a situation, eg when u go toilet yk to pee wipe wash hands etc. and self schemas which contain information about ourselves
Problem with schemas is they can result in prejudice of others, resulting us paying attention to information that supports our schemas and ignoring information that would involve changing our schemas to accommodate.
Cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience:The cognitive approach integrates cognition with biological processes, leading to cognitive neuroscience, which uses brain-scanning techniques to investigate the neural basis of mental processes.
Bartletts war of the ghost study
Bartlett wanted to investigate the role of schemas and their impact on memory
Participants were asked to read the war of the ghosts story, which was an unfamilliar story from a different culture (the participants were from england), participants were asked to recall the story after different lengths of time. Bartlett found that all participants changed the story to fit their own schema- for example changing words such as canoes to boats, and omitting parts of the story they didnt understand well. Bartlett concluded people use their own schemas to interpret and remember the world around them.
Bartletts War of the Ghost study AO3
-researcher bias, bartlett decided what counted as accurate recall and what didnt, affects findings, decreases internal validity
-sample were students at cambridge university, population bias.
+lab study= highly controlled.
The cognitive approach AO3
+One strength of the cognitive approach is that it has inspired further research into artificial intelligence, which aims to model human thinking, as suggested by the cognitive approach. The cognitive approach proposes that thinking occurs through an information-processing system involving input, processing, and output. As a result, scientists have used these ideas to model aspects of human thinking in AI systems. This demonstrates that the cognitive approach has strong practical applications and has stimulated the development of new fields of research.
-However a limitation of the cognitive approach is its machine reductionism. While AI can process information in a simillar way to the human mind, both AI and the cognitive approach fail to account for factors such as consciousness and emotion, which are cruical in real life behaviour. Because of this, the cognitive approach procides an incomplete explanation of behaviour.For example, someone who is very angry may struggle to process information in an argument, showing human thinking is not always a neat process output sequence.
+Another strength of the cognitive approach is that it is scientific and objective. Cognitive psychologists use lab experiments, brain scans and computer models to study mental processes. This makes their findings reliable and replicable - giving psychology more credit as a science compared to approaches that rely on subjective observation.
-One weakness of the cognitive approach is that it can be too abstract and theoretical, many cognitive concepts such as schemas or memory stores cannot be observed directly. Meaning psychologists have to make inferences about what is actually happening in the mind. Which can reduce accuracy or completeness of their explanations.
The biological approach ao1
The biological approach assumes behaviour can be explained by biological processes/ factors. Such as:
1) Genetic basis of behaviour
-Genes (sections of dna on chromosomes) are passed down (inherited) from parents to offspringthey code for not only physical characteristics (eg eye colour) but also psychological characteristics (eg intelligence)
-researchers study genetics and their influence on behaviour through twin studies. MZ twins share 100% of their genes , while DZ twins share a random 50% of their genes. When concordance rates are compared , if a behaviour truly has a genetic basis, concordance rates will be higher in mz twins than dz twins.
2)Brain structures and behaviour
Discusses that behaviour is controlled by different brain structures eg frontol lobe controls morality, decision making, organisation. Occipital lobe : vision
Damage/abnormalities to certain areas of the brain can lead to specific behavioural or cognitive defects
3) neurochemistry
Behaviour is also influenced by neurotransmitters which are chemical messengers in the brain. An imbalance in neurotransmitters in the body can lead to mental disorders.
-eg lack of serotonin can lead to depression.
