Describe the contributions of Wundt to the origins of psychology including ‘introspection’
Wundt is known as ‘the father of psychology’. He began studying humans in a philosophical way but decided to move towards more controlled research.
· He set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in the 1870’s.
· He promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes; Introspection (looking within) is the systematic analysis of your own present conscious experience of a stimulus (not past)
· In Wundt’s lab, highly trained observers were presented with carefully controlled and standardised sensory events. These individuals were then asked to describe their mental experiences of these events. Wundt believed that the observers needed to be in a state of high attention to the stimulus and in control of the situation. The observations were also repeated numerous times.
· An experience was analysed in terms of its two main components parts; physical sensations and emotional feelings. Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is called structuralism.
· His work paved the way for later controlled research into the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.
Evaluate the contributions Wundt made to the origins of psychology
Wundt’s work can be praised for its scientific merit. For example, his observations were always repeated several times which makes them more reliable. They were also done in controlled environments with standardised procedures which means they had good internal validity as extraneous variables were controlled for.
A further positive is that Wundt’s approach led to the development of the cognitive approach which also attempts to create structures that can explain internal mental processes, like memory, in a scientific and controlled way.
A criticism of Wundt’s approach was that it sought to measure ‘non-observable’ things such as emotions, in this way it was not scientific as it was not empirical. Although participants could describe their emotions and experiences, they were probably doing so with some subjectivity which would vary from day to day depending on mood. Results also varied greatly from person to person, so it became very difficult to establish general principles.
Wundt’s approach ultimately failed because of the lack of reliability of his methods. Introspective ‘experimental’ results were not reliably reproducible by other researchers in other laboratories. In contrast, psychologists like the early behaviourists (Pavlov) were focussing only on observable behaviours and were achieving reliable (reproducible) results and discovering laws that could be easily generalised to all human beings.
What are the overall assumptions of the learning approaches? - behaviourist
Behaviourist psychologists understand human behaviour by claiming that all behaviour (normal and abnormal) is learnt and determined by the environment and that nothing is innate. They have made laws and principles that explain human behaviour and make predictions about future behaviour. These laws are known as classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
What is classical conditioning?
This theory states that everything from speech to emotional responses are simply patterns of stimulus and response formed via the environment as they have been associated together so many times that we learn they are linked.
Classical conditioning states that there are pre-existing unconditioned stimulus and response links that happen automatically without learning. Through repeated association with unconditioned stimuli, neutral stimuli can begin to produce similar responses. Once they do they are known as conditioned stimuli because the only reason they cause behaviour is through the conditioning process.
Describe Pavlovs research
Pavlov’s dogs were each placed in a controlled environment with a food bowl in front of them and a device was used to measure their salivation. He found that the dogs would begin to salivate at things which normally were associated with the food. For example, if he repeatedly rang a bell alongside the presentation of food they would learn to associate the bell with the food. Over time the bell alone would be enough to make the dogs salivate, meaning the bell had become a conditioned stimuli with the conditioned response of salivation. This response demonstrated the basic principle of classical conditioning. A neutral stimulus, NS, could be associated with the unconditioned stimulus, UCS. This association could be created through repeating the neutral stimulus along with the unconditioned stimulus, which would become a conditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response: salivation.
Evaluate Pavlovs research
Because Pavlov used a controlled environment and objectively measured the response via amount of salivation his experiment has good internal validity as he can be more confident of a cause and effect link with no extraneous variables having an effect.
However Pavlov used dogs which are not as cognitively developed as humans and so have different things that affect their behaviour, this means that the results should not be fully generalised/extrapolated as they are not representative.
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning states that we learn through the consequence of actions. Operations/behaviours that have positive consequences will be repeated i.e. learned. Operations/behaviours that have unpleasant consequences will not be repeated. By controlling the consequences of behaviour it is possible to control what is learned and therefore control future behaviour.
Operant conditioning proposes that you only learn when the behaviour you exhibit has consequences, behaviour that is reinforced (positive consequence) is strengthened and so learning takes place. Behaviour that has an unpleasant outcome (punishment) will not be repeated and so learning takes place.
What are different types of reinforcment?
Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable consequence in response to a desirable behaviour to increase the chances of the behaviour being repeated. For example giving someone money for doing a good job.
A positive reinforcer can be primary or secondary. A primary reinforcer is something that in itself is directly rewarding. A secondary reinforcer is not in itself directly rewarding but is a token than will eventually lead to a primary reinforcer, for example a merit is just a token but it will lead to a day trip at the end of the year if enough are collected.
Negative reinforcement is taking away a bad consequence in response to a desirable behaviour to increase the chances of the behaviour being repeated. For example, a teacher might take away the end of topic test for each student that performs well in all their homework tasks.
Punishment is not actually named on the spec but this involves creating an undesirable consequence/outcome (either by taking something good away (negative punishment) or adding something bad (positive punishment)) in order to stop a behaviour occurring again).
Describe Skinners research
Skinner’s method involved placing an animal (rats or pigeons most frequently) in a specially designed box and training them to show specific behaviours or operations. Typically, hungry rats were placed into the box where they had to press a lever in order to obtain food. It is natural for animals such as rats to explore new environments, therefore when placed into the Skinner box they moved around it. Skinner demonstrated it is possible to shape an animal’s behaviour by reinforcing behaviours close to the required behaviour. For instance he would reward a rat whenever it would go near the lever, by giving it a food pellet. Eventually the rat would accidentally press the lever which would release a food pellet. The rat soon learned that food is released when the lever is pressed and continues to press it; this shows the impact of positive reinforcement. He also showed negative reinforcement in action when he electrified the floor of the cage and encouraged the rat to press the lever as it would switch off the
current. Therefore the behaviour of pressing the lever resulted in a positive consequence and the electricity was avoided.
Evaluate Skinners research
Because skinner used a controlled environment of the small box where all variables could be controlled and measured his experiment has good internal validity as he can be more confident of a cause and effect link with no extraneous variables having an effect.
However Skinner used animals which are not as cognitively developed as humans and so have different things that affect their behaviour, this means that the results should not be fully generalised/extrapolated as they are not representative.
OVERALL A01 - Describe the behaviourist approach as a whole
Behaviourist psychologists understand human behaviour by claiming that all behaviour (normal and abnormal) is learnt and determined by the environment and that nothing is innate. They have made laws and principles that explain human behaviour and make predictions about future behaviour. These laws are known as classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning emphasises the important of repeated associations in causing our behaviours. This theory states that behaviour is an association between stimulus and response formed via the environment as they have been associated together so many times that we learn they are linked. Classical conditioning states that there are pre-existing unconditioned stimulus and response links that happen automatically without learning. Through repeated association with unconditioned stimuli, neutral stimuli can begin to produce similar responses. Once they do they are known as conditioned stimuli because the only reason they cause behaviour is through the conditioning process.
Operant conditioning emphasises importance of consequences, i.e. behaviour that is reinforced is likely to be repeated and behaviour that is punished is not likely to be repeated. By controlling the consequences of behaviour it is possible to control what is learned and therefore control future behaviour.
They state that other people who condition us are responsible for our development/behaviours e.g. parents, peers and teachers etc. but also that what is learned can be unlearned using the same principles.
Evaluate the Behaviourist approach using the approach to treatment
A Further strength is that there are real life applications of both classical and operant conditioning. For example, counter-conditioning can be used to unlearn a fear via systematic desensitisation. This is where a new response of relaxation is gradually learnt for a previously feared stimulus. By gradually moving up a fear hierarchy the fear is replaced due to reciprocal inhibition as it is not possible to feel both fear and relaxation at the same time. This is a strength of the approach as it can help people in real life.
Evaluate the behaviourist approach using Scientific merit
Because behaviourists believe that the same laws apply to human behaviour and non-human behaviour much of their research support comes from studies carried out on animals. For example, Skinner’s method involved placing a rat in a box and giving it a food pellet when it went near to a lever. Eventually the rat would accidentally press the lever which would again release a food pellet. The rat soon learned that food is released when the lever is pressed and continues to press it; this supported the law of operant conditioning. However, animals are less cognitively developed than humans as so the results are not fully representative of how a human would react and so results cannot be fully extrapolated. This means the research may not fully support the approach. One reason both Skinner and Pavlov used animals was to establish a high level of control which would have been unethical with humans. This gave their studies good internal validity and is in line with the behaviourists focus on objectivity and the study of observable behaviour, this raised psychology’s scientific status and behaviourism still remains one of the most scientific approaches. This adds credibility to the approach.
Evaluate the behaviourist approach using debates - reductionist
However, a limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it is environmentally reductionist. Behaviourism attempts to understand complex human behaviours by finding one simple and basic explanation of which environmental stimulus causes the response. Reductionism can cause problems as it does not account for the cumulative effect of many factors which can sometimes combine to create behaviours and problems – other influences on behaviour are ignore, for example cognitions and the influence of genetics. This is a weakness as reductionist explanation often lack meaning and are incomplete or limit treatment options.
Evaluate the behaviourist approach using its implications/applications
One major application of behaviourism is the use of token economy systems in institutions such as schools and prisons where desirable behaviours are immediately rewarded with the secondary reinforcer of a token that can later be exchanged for a primary reinforcer. This has been effective in increasing compliance and cooperative behaviours and is a useful and widely used application of SLT. However, there are ethical concerns of token economy systems as they may mean that some badly-behaved people are denied basic rights or that they may be used more to benefit staff than the students/prisoners. Therefore, there are socially sensitive implications to this part of the approach.
Main strengths of the behaviourist approach
Main Strengths of the approach:
· Explain how research evidence supports the approach
· Explain the ways in which the approach is scientific/has scientific credibility (referring to the focus on the use of lab experiments)
· Explain the real life applications of the approach, e.g. systematic desensitisation for phobias
Main limitations of the behaviourist approach
Explain why it is reductionist and why this could be a problem (limits treatment options/success of treatment)
· Explain problems in relying on animal experiments/the assumption that humans and animals learn in the same way.
What is the overall assumption of the psychodynamic approach?
The psychodynamic approach is most closely associated with the work of Freud carried out around 1900 (though there are still many psychodynamic psychologists). Freud believed that behaviour was determined more by psychological factors than by biological factors or environmental reinforcement. Although he did believe that some things like the three-part personality and the psychosexual stages of development were universal and so innate. In this way it is an interactionist approach.
What is the role of the unconscious?
Freud developed this concept and suggested that the part of our mind that we know about and are aware of – the conscious mind – is merely the ‘tip of the iceberg’. Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious: a vast storehouse of basic drives and instincts as well as unresolved conflicts or unpleasant events/memories. This unconscious mind has a significant influence on our behaviour and personality. In-between the two is the pre-conscious which we only get glimpses of if we focus very hard. The only way to access the unconscious mind is through psychoanalysis where the psychoanalyst can try to decode the symbols of our unconscious mind through techniques such as dream analysis or free-association. The psychoanalyst then can tell the patient what is buried there and they must come to terms with and accept it to be able to recover and move on. The patient themselves can never access their own unconscious – it is totally out of their awareness in its nature even though it controls much of their behaviour.
What is the ID?
The ID – born with this (innate): the ID works on the pleasure principle and is driven by the life and death instincts, called ‘libido’. These instincts create unconscious tension if these wishes are not met. Wishes are often sexual, violent and selfish in their nature.
What is the ego?
The Ego – developed via the psychosexual stages, formed between 18mo-3yrs: the EGO has to deal with reality and sometimes makes use of unconscious defence mechanisms to protect it from the unreasonable demands of the ID. Defence mechanisms also protect the EGO from unpleasant things in the real world.
What is the superego?
The Superego – developed via the psychosexual stages, formed between 3-6yrs: the SUPER-EGO is focussed on strict morality and rewards us by making us feel good when we do something nice and guilty when we do something wrong.
What are defence mechanisms?
In order to live a healthy and productive life the Ego (our conscious awareness) must be protected from unpleasant or threatening experiencing which can include unresolved conflicts, trauma in life and disagreements between the ID and superego. A way to protect the Ego is to use defence mechanisms to hide these things from the Ego, ultimately though they will still cause us problems such as mental health issues.
What is repression?
this allows us to forget disturbing or threatening thoughts to prevent them from becoming conscious by pushing them into the unconscious. We all use repression however if we continually repress things we are not facing reality and this can create problems in the future. The Oedipus and Electra conflicts are examples of repression (we repress sexual feelings towards our opposite sex parent in order to get along with our same sex parent).
