What is meant by genotype?
refers to the genes an individual possesses / an individualߢs
genetic make-up.
What is meant by phenotype?
refers to the observable traits or characteristics shown by the
individual; these traits / characteristics are due to the combined effect of genes
and environment.
A recent study showed that Alzheimer’s disease may be partly inherited.
John’s father suffered from Alzheimer’s disease. John is keen to get genetically tested to
see if he will develop Alzheimer’s disease.
Explain why John’s genotype will not reveal whether he will suffer from Alzheimer’s
disease.
the genetic test reveals the genotype not the phenotype
- John’s genotype will only reveal his set of genes (not their interaction with the
environment) - a genetic test will only reveal if he is predisposed to suffering Alzheimer’s disease
but will not reveal whether he will develop/suffer from the disorder - environmental factors may contribute to the disorder (it depends on an interaction
between inherited factors and the environment.
In a study of tooth decay, researchers checked the dental records of 100 pairs of identical
twins. They recorded the number of fillings for each twin and found the following data:
Twin pairs with the same
number of fillings
48
Twin pairs with different
number of fillings
52
Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain the data in the table above.
The genotype for tooth decay is the same for all the twin pairs as they are all
MZ/identical so for each pair their teeth would be expected to decay in exactly the
same way.
- The fact that some twin pairs have different decay to each other (52) indicates their
phenotypes differ and something other than genes affected tooth decay e.g.
diet/brushing teeth.
embed into application
Rita and Holly are identical twins who were separated at birth. When they finally met each
other at the age of 35, they were surprised at how different their personalities were. Rita is
much more social and out-going than Holly.
Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain this difference in their
personalities.
Holly and Rita have identical genotype as they are MZ twins.
- They have the predisposition to develop the same personalities as each other
unless another factor(s) intervenes. - For them to have developed different personalities over time, this must have
been influenced by being in different environments. - Their phenotypes – personalities achieved – are different, presumably
because Rita was encouraged to be sociable and lively and Holly was not.
We use schema when we process information from the world around us.
Explain one reason why using schema might be useful when processing information from
the world around us, and explain one reason why using schema might not be useful when
processing information from the world around us.
schema prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
schema can cause biased recall / see what we expect
Give two assumptions of the cognitive approach. For each assumption, illustrate your
answer with reference to a topic in psychology
‘mental processes can be regarded as information processing’ relevant topics
might be: memory
mental processes can be scientifically studied’ relevant topics might be: stress
eg locus of control;
In a laboratory study of problem-solving, cognitive psychologists asked
participants to solve problems presented in different colours of ink. They
found that it took longer to solve problems presented in green ink, than it did
to solve problems presented in other colours. They inferred that the mental
processing of problems is made more difficult when a problem is presented in
green ink.
Explain what is meant by ‘inference’ in relation to this study.
going beyond the immediate evidence to
make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
problem difficulty is being inferred on the basis of time taken to solve the problem in the different conditions
Adil has just started studying the cognitive approach in psychology but does not
understand when his teacher tells him that cognitive psychologists use the results of
experiments to make inferences about behaviour.
Write a brief explanation of inference that would help Adil to understand what his teacher
means.
make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed/going beyond the
immediate research evidence.
Outline one problem of studying internal mental processes like memory ability by
conducting experiments such as that described in part (a) above.
The task given is rarely how normal memory functioning occurs because
it is specifically designed to make measurement possible – the
researcher therefore collects data that is only related to memory
processing under experimental conditions.
Outline two features of the cognitive approach. Explain two limitations of the cognitive
approach. (8)
Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and non-conscious
– internal mental processes.
* Schema are the mental representation of experience and knowledge and
understanding.
* Mental processes are information processing and the processing can be compared
to that of a computer.
* Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these
can be studied scientifically and inferences made.
* Cognition and biological processes can be integrated leading to cognitive
neuroscience as a way forward to understanding human behaviour.
* Methodology - use of controlled experimentation – inference about mental
processes on the basis of observed behaviour.
The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as
processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality seen in emotional
behaviours.
* The focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled
environments means an understanding of everyday use of memory, for example, is
missing from explanations. This leads to issues of generalisation.
* The process of inference may be a ‘leap too far’ in explaining thinking.
* Issue of soft determinism and little room for processes other than internal mental
events affecting behaviour such as biology.
* Research findings indicate factors other than internal mental events as cause of
behaviour.
* Use of self-report as a method of data collection and the subsequent issues of
reliability.
* The focus on individual mental processes such as attention, leaves little room for
how these mental events work together.
Explain one way in which social learning theory overlaps with one other approach in
psychology.
likely
answers will refer to overlap with the behaviourist approach – learning of behaviour
and role of reinforcement;
