1
Q
Where was psychology rooted in?
A
17th and 19th century philosophy, Rene Descartes - concept of cartesian dualism ‘the mind and body are separate entities, that the brain is not same as the mind’
2
Q
Who is the ‘father of psychology’ and why?
A
-In 1873, he published ‘principles of physiological psychology’ the first psych book
-In 1879, opened first psych lab in Leipzig,Germany
-He used introspection to study the structure of the human mind, by breaking behaviours into their basic elements - approach =’structuralism’
Introspection = looking internally and recording your own conscious thoughts
3
Q
Wundt’s experiment
A
-ppts given standardises instructions
Played sounds of metronomes, told to record how they felt/ what they though of
-Experiment was controlled and replicable
4
Q
Weaknesses of Introspection
A
- Unable to verify truth
- subjective, due to people interpreting sounds differently
- Extraneous variables
- Relies on non-observable responses
5
Q
Watson & early behaviourists
A
- Beginning 20th century, watson questioned the value of introspection as the data was subjective and varied too much
- W. felt that psych should only study phenomena that could be observed and measured
6
Q
Importance of scientific methods
A
- Improves validity
- Prevents discrediting of the study &findings by other professions
- Scientific knowledge is self corrective, can be changed
7
Q
Behaviourist approach (main concepts)
A
-Assumes that behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour,
that behaviour is a response to stimulus
that when born our mind is a blank state as there are no genetics involved controlling our behaviour
8
Q
Classical conditioning (Pavlovs dogs)
A
-Learning through association
‘when a human learns to associate a reflex response with a new stimulus’
Pavlov’s dogs;
Before - dog given food(unconditioned stimulus) = salivation (unconditioned response
During - dog given food (UCS) whilst a bell was rang (Neutral stimulus) = responds with salivation (UCR)
After - the bell was rang (conditioned stimulus) and the dog gave a conditioned response of salivation
-Showed how repeated exposure to events -> learned,uncontrollable behaviour
9
Q
Operant Conditioning (Skinners rats)
A
- Learning through reinforcement, as learning is an active process where humans +A operate on their environment
- Skinner place a rat in a box with a lever, controlled environment, when the lever was pressed the rat was given a food pellet - known as positive reinforcement
- also negatively reinforced the rat by removing a loud noise
10
Q
Reinforcement
A
- Positive reinforcement = A reward which makes a good situation better ->increases likelihood of response occurring
- Negative reinforcement = a reward which takes away an unpleasant situation -> decreases the likelihood of negative response occurring
11
Q
Punishment
A
=the outcome of a behaviour is negative and less likely to repeat it
- Positive P = ADDing something unpleasant
- Negative P = Removing something DESIRABLE
12
Q
BEHAVIOURIST Strength (controlled research
A
+Uses well controlled research as its focused on measuring observable behaviour within controlled lab settings -> allows behaviourists to break down behaviour into S->R units. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
-> BUT CAN OVERSIMPLIFY learning and ignore influences on behaviour, suggesting that learning is more complex than what is oversable
13
Q
Social Learning theory - Assumptions
A
- Concerned with human behaviour, people are active manipulators of their own environment
- Learning occurs through the observation of role models, through interpersonal situations - observation & imitation.
- Observational learning uses cognitive processes such as memory, the process between Stimuli -> Response are Meditational processes
14
Q
Indirect learning - slt
A
Bandura agreed with behaviourist approach that learning occurs through experience.
->learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation
15
Q
SLT main concepts
A
-Vicarious Reinforcement:
the person observes behaviour of others, indirectly learning. May imitate this behaviour if positively reinforced, they observe the behaviour and the consequences of it.
-Meditational Processes;
factors which determine wether a new response is acquired, identified by Bandura. they are: Attention (extent to which the behaviour was noticed)-> Retention(remembering it) ->Motor Reproduction(ability of person to perform the behaviour)-> Motivation (the will to perform bh)
-Identification:
PPL imitate those they identify with- ‘ROLE MODELS’
Process of imitating the RM is modelling - RM as they posses similar charachteristics to the observer e.g. high status/play same sport
RM don’t need to be physically present in the environment e.g. a child is watching Andy Murray win a tennis game and the child now wants to improve their tennis skills.
16
Q
Bandura 1961
A
Recorded the behaviour of children who watched an adult behave aggresively towards a Bobo Doll.
The adult hit the Bobo doll and shouted abuse at it.
When the children were then observed playing with toys, they behaved more aggresively towards the Bobo doll and other toys than the children who has observed a non-aggressive adult.
-Used three groups of 24 children, the first grp shown a aggressive adult, the second a non-aggressive adult and the third no model as the control group
17
Q
Bandura 1963
A
-Showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggresively towards the Bobo doll
The first group saw the adult being praised for their behaviour
The second group saw the adult being punished for their behaviour towards the doll.
The third group saw the aggresive behaviour with no consequence.
-When the children were given a bobo doll to pay with, the first group showed more aggresion, the the third and then the second
18
Q
SLT strength - importance of cognitive factors
A
+ Neither classicial conditioning of operant conditioning offer a comprehensive account of learning on own as cognitive factors are omitted. ->Humans store information about behaviours of others & use to make judgements if appropriate to perform.
This shows that SLT provides a more complete explanation of learning as it credits meditational processes.
19
Q
Cognitive Approach - Assumptions
A
- It is the events within a person that must be studied if behaviour is to be fully understood
- the mind works like a computer, the input from our senses and then processed & produced as output like language
- As cognitions can’t be studied directly, inferences must be made - use of data & evidence to make an educated guess
20
Q
Role of inference cog
A
-mental processes are private and can’t observed, cognitive psychologists study them indirectly through inferences.
21
Q
Cog Approach - Brain imaging techniques
A
- FMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging, detects changes in blood oxygenation and blood flow, produce 3d images, blue - O2 & black - no O2.
- ERP, event-related potentials, looks as specific areas, scans responses to a specific stimuli and scans types of brainwaves that are triggered by particular events
- EEG, electroencephalogram, scans overall acitivity of brain, electrodes are fixed on a skullcap which is then place on the participant, scans represent brainwave patterns.
- Post-Mortem, analysis of a dead persons brain, only done on those with rare disorders/head injuries. Areas examined to see causes of affliction.
22
Q
Biological approach -assumptions
A
- Suggests that everything psychological is at first biological so to fully understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures and processes within the body
- The mind lives in the brain, all thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical basis.
- Genes affect behaviour and influence individual psychological differences between people.
23
Q
BioAp - genetic basis of behaviour
A
- study whether behavioural charachteristics, like intelligence, personality, mental disorders are inherited in the same way as physical charachteristics, like height & eye colour
- different methods are used to investigate the extent to which these psychological charachteristics are affected by inheritance from parents & evolution
24
Q
BioAp - Twin studies
A
- Monozygotic twins, 1 zygote that was split into two and formed separate embryos ->non identical twins & share 100% DNA
- Dizygotic, two zygotes fertilised by different sperm cells -> non identical twins, share 50% DNA
Use a concordance rate - the agreement between the extent to which monozygotic & dizygotic share similar traits
MZ - High Concordance rate
DZ - Lower concordance rate
25
BioAp twin studies - christiansen 1977
-Christiansen 1977 crime study, he studied mz & dz twins and found that 56% of MZ twins share a higher concordance rate of criminal behaviour than DZ, where 21% shared a lower concordance rate of criminal behaviour. Shows that influence of the environment which affects the chance of criminal behaviour.
26
BioAp -Twin studies, Gottesman 1991
-schizophrenia study
-Sample of 57 twin pairs - 24MZ & 33DZ, range of ages from 19-64
-Twin pairs were tested using blood samples & personality tests.
-fnd that 42% of MZ twins & 9% of DZ twins were both diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Also that 12% of MZ & 9% of DZ twins where at least one twin had been in psychiatric hospitalisation.
Conc -> genes appear as a large role in schizophrenia as concordance rates are higher in MZ twins than DZ twins. But environmental factors are still dependant of concordance rates as it is not 100%
27
BioAp Family studies
Look at the chance of child & parent having a disorder
-1869 Francis Galton, hereditary genius 'a mans natural abilities are derived by inheritance, under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world'
28
BioAp adoption studies
-focuses on environmental factors, compares traits between adopted children and their biological or adoptive parents
-> Heston 1966, compared 47 children whose mother had schizophrenia with a control group of adopted children with no schizophrenia in biological family.
FND that 16% of offspring of schizophrenic mothers were diagnosed, none were diagnosed in control group.
29
BioAp selective breeding
- involves artificially selecting males and females to breed for a specific trait. The animals are then put together in order to breed & produce offspring.
- Used to demonstrate how a number of behavioural charachteristics may have a genetic basis e.g. 'Maze Bright rats'
30
BIOAP - evolution & behaviour
Evolution -Charles Darwin 19th century, theory of natural & sexual selection
Natural selection -any behaviour that benefits a species and helps it to survive & reproduce will continue in future generations, pass on the 'adaptive traits' to their offspring - seen in farming
Sexual selection - Males have an abundance of sperm, females have a select number of eggs and are more selective over choosing who to breed with to provide the best characteristics in their offspring. Peahen choose the peacocks with the most 'eyes' on their tails as its the more desired charachteristic.
31
BioAp - Genotype & Phenotype
genes function in pairs and only determine the potential for charachteristics
The observable charachteristics of an individual depend on the interaction of genetic & environmental factors.
-> Genotype = genetic makeup, can't see, actual set of genes you have genetic programming that provides the phenotype
->Phenotype = can be seen with the eyes, caused by changes in an environment & has multiple interactions
Genotype + environment = phenotype
Diathesis-Stress model - genetic vulnerability that predisposes ppl to have certain traits is combined with our environment
32
Humanistic App - ASSUMPTIONS
- Relies on Phenomenology, technique of involving the reporting of direct experience with no attempt of interpreting the experience
- Holism, humanism believes psychology should study the whole person
- Self Actualisation, humanism believes that ppl are motivated by the wish to fulfil their potential
33
Psycho AP ASSUMPTIONS
- The unconscious mind, including instincts & drive, is the desired force behind any behaviour.
- Personality has 3 parts, the iD, ego & superego
- Early childhood experiences shapes the person we are
34
Psycho AP - unconscious, conscious and preconscious
-Psychic determinism = unconscious forces /drives are inborn & in control of behaviour, everything has a cause.
- Conscious = small mental activity we know about e.g. thoughts & perceptions
- Unconscious = things we could be aware of it tried/ wanted to e.g. Memories & Stored knowledge
- Preconscious = things we are unaware of & can't become aware of e.g. Instincts & deeply buried memories
Accessing the unconscious mind -> dream analysis or free association. FA - get ppt to relax and say anything, therapist interprets & says anything. Ego is unavailable to check for threats. DA - repressed ideas in unconscious are likely to appear in dreams than if we were awake (Latent Content), the manifest content is dream therapist interprets dreams.
35
Psycho Ap - Personality
- 3 parts
- THE ID = primitive biological part of mind, present in new born infants, consists of biological impulses/drives, satisfy urges & wishes. Works on pleasure principles & part of unconscious mind.
- The EGO = develops as child grows (age 2), aims to gratify id's impulses with reality, Works on reality principle. Part of conscious mind.
- The SUPEREGO = develops last, judges whether actions are right/wrong - acts as a conscience, is internalised representations of values of same sex parent. Violating causes anxiety - guilt, works on morality principle & part of conscious + unconscious mind.
36
Psycho AP Defence mechanisms
-Disagreement between ID, Superego and ego, unconscious.
Denial = reject thought/feeling, refuse to acknowledge aspect of reality
Repression = forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind
Displacement = transfer feelings from true sources of distressing emotions onto a substitute target
37
Psychosexual stages of development
Freud suggests if a child receives too much/little satisfaction at any stage / anything traumatic -> fixation & will show certain charachteristics
->Oral, 0-1 years, focus is on pleasure of mouth, mothers breast is object of desires, Oral fixation = smoking, biting nails, sarcastic & critical.
->Anal, 1-3 years, focus is on pleasure of anus, gains pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces. Fixation - either retention or expulsive, Anal retentive = perfectionist/obsessive
Anal expulsive = thoughtless /messy
- >Phallic, 3-5yrs, focus is on pleasure of genital areas, child experiences Oedipus/Electra complex. Fixation = narcissistic, reckless and homosexual?
- >Latency, 6-16yrs, obsessed with same sex friendships, sexual impulses are repressed. Fixation = Wet dreams.
- >Genital, Puberty, sexual desires become conscious & fixation = difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
38
Psycho AP - Oedipus complex
- Freud claimed that little boys in the phallic stage develops incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their rival in love - the Father.
- Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role & moral values
->Freud suggested that girls also experience penis envy - they desire their father and hate their mothers -> they give up the desire & replace with desire for baby - forming social roles.
39
EVAL Little Hans
+ it includes in-depth qualitative data, gained through various methods such as observations & interviews, ethical issues as Hans father was honest with him about what he was doing with the information and told him Freud would help sort out the 'nonsense'.
-lacks objectivity, Bias in questions, study of one individual that lacks population validity, Oedipus & Electra complex & psychosexual stages can be generalised to children, Ethical issues -Hans unable to give informed consent.
40
Little Hans ex 3 - the happy one with families
- Hans is playing family, he fantasises that he is daddy and his mummy is mummy.
- Hans father is the children's grandfather
- He has consciously acknowledge that he desired his mother
- This resolves his Oedipus complex, accepted the sexual desire for mum, imitates dad & is no longer afraid.
41
Little Hans ex 2 - the one with the widdler (castration anxiety)
- First reports when Hans was three, a 'peculiarly lively interest in his widdler'
- His mother told him that she would call for 'Dr.A' to cut it off
- Hans tries to give up 'putting his finger to his widdler'
- Hans comments that widdlers are fixed in of course ->suggests a castration anxiety.
42
Little Hans ex 1 - white horse
-Hans sees a horse pulling a carriage, it falls down and Hans thinks that its dead.
-Hans dad interprets this as a death wish against him.
-Hans also over hears a man telling his child not to touch the horse as it will bite him.
-Hans associates Dad as white horse with a dark muzzle and blinkers.
Hans dad start to play biting games & tells father not to 'trot away' from him
43
Little Hans
- 5yo boy phobia of horse ->seeing one collapse in street
- Freud suggested that this phobia was a displacement of repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses -> symbolic of Han's unconscious fear of castration during Oedipus complex.
- EX. of the observations:
1. The white horse
2. The one with the Widdler (castration anxiety)
3. The happy one with families
His phobia disappeared after dad said his widdler is safe & loved him. The information was analysed by Freud, he came up with the following:
1. Hans was experiencing the Oedipus complex, he was subconsciously scared of his father.
2. the fear of his father was manifested in a fear of horses
3. Hans obsession of his 'widdler' shows that Hans was in the phallic stage of development.
4. Hans identified as his father - interpreted as the resolution to the Oedipus complex.
44
PsychoAp EVAL Limits
-It is untestable. The philosopher of science, Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn't meet the falsification criteria. As the approach is not open to empirical testing, many occur at an unconscious level so we aren't aware of our behaviour. Freuds study was subjective of individuals an this makes it difficult to make general claims about human behaviour. This means that it is hard to falsify and create generalisations due to its subjectivity.
45
Psychodynamic approach eval strengths
- has explanatory power to explain human behaviour, although it is controversial Freuds theory had a huge influence on psychology & western thoughts. The approach was hugely influential for the first half of 20th century and was used to explain a range of phenomena.
- >Freuds work can explain gender development as it is believed that children in the phallic stage imitate the behaviour of the same sex parent. It also draws attention to the connection between childhood experiences and later adult behaviour.
- >This suggests that overall the psychodynamic approach has a positive impact on psychology.
-real world application, introduced using psychotherapy to treat mental disorders, rather than physical treatments. Psychoanalysis accesses the unconscious through dream analysis and free association. It claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions to the conscious so they can be dealt with. Thus psychotherapy is the forerunner to modern talking therapies like counselling. This shows that value of the psychodynamic approach.
46
BIOAP EVAL LIMITS
-Approach is determinist. It sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control. However, the way an individuals genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment. Even identical monozygotic twins that share 100% DNA don't look or think the exact same. A purely genetic argument becomes problematic when we consider things like crime. Could a violent criminal, really excuse their actions by claiming their behaviour was controlled by a 'crime gene'. This suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment.
47
BioAP EVAL Strengths
+real world application -> increase understanding about neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders. For example, this approach has promoted treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin synapses in the brain. Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms. This means that people with depression may be better able to manage their condition & live a relatively normal life rather remain in hospital.
+BIOAP uses scientific methods of investigation. In order to investigate the genetic and biological bases of behaviour, the approach makes use of a range of precise and highly objective methods. These include scanning techniques, such as FMRIs and EEGs. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. This means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data.
48
Humanistic Approach Background
- concerned with human experiences, uniqueness, meaning, freedom and choice.
- 'Third Force', aim to replace behaviourism & psychoanalysis
- Developed in 1950s
49
Humanistic - Free Will
this approach claims that human beings are essentially self-determining and have free-will
ppl are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development
-Reject scientific models (Rogers & Maslow) which establish general principles. Psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws - ''Person-Centered Approach''
50
Humanistic - Heriachy of needs & self-actualisation
- Maslow 1940-50s, developed heriachy of needs
- Self actualisation represents upper most level of needs, it means to have achieved your desire to grow psychologically & fulfil one's potential
- Must progress through lower levels first
51
Humanistic - The Self,
- Rogers proposed we have 3 selves which need to integrate to reach self-actualisation
- The self concept = an individuals concepts of the self as it is currently, consciously experienced
- The ideal self = the self-concept that an individual would most like to have
- The real-self = what some is actually like
52
Humanistic - Congruence
- if two big a gap between ideal self & self concept, will experience state of incongruence -> NO S-A
Congruence = a consistency between the ideal self and self concept
Incongruence = An inconsistency between the ideal self & self concept
53
Humanistic - Conditions of worth
- Conditions of worth occurs when a parent sets boundaries on their love for their child.
- Unconditional positive regard is being loved, valued and respected unconditionally
Rogers said that we experience issues in adult life, but it is rooted in childhood -> a lack of unconditional positive regard.
54
Humanistic - Rogers therapy
-In ''Client Centered Therapy'' these behaviours are encouraged:
Unconditional positive regard, Positive self regard (like & respect yourself), Empathy - identifying & understanding another's situation, feelings & motives.
55
Humanistic - Methodology
- prefer using Unstructured interviews - access to ppls views without researcher bias, Participant observation - researcher is part of observation to understand perceptions.
- Q-sort aims to measure the level of one's congruence
- collect insight/data through diaries, letters and biological material
56
Examples of Humanistic approach
- Depression -> a lack of unconditional positive regard & inability to accept one's self
- Schizophrenia -> use Rogers therapy as supportive therapy for relatives
57
Humanistic eval - Strength - Not reductionist
-not reductionist ->rejects attempts to break up behaviour & experience into smaller components unlike behaviourists etc..., Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to basic psychological processes. This approach promotes holism -> looking at experience by understanding the whole person. TMT this approach has more validity than alternative approaches as it considers meaningful human behaviour within a real-life context.
58
Humanistic eval + Optimistic approach
-This approach is optimistic -> praised for promoting a positive self-image of human condition, focuses on explanations of 'healthy growth' in individuals. Freud - humans = slaves to past, we all exist somewhere between 'common happiness' & absolute despair.
In contrast -> HA sees ppl as good, free to work towards achievement of their potential & in control of lives.
-> suggests HA offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches
59
Humanistic eval - culturally biased
collectivist cultures e.g. India, emphasise the needs of the group community & interdependance. Not identify with the ideals & values of humanistic psychology.
Central ideas of HA such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth -> individualistic cultures e.g. UK.
Therefore this approach doesn't apply universally -> a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
60
Comparison
Behaviourist - environmental determinism, nurture, environmental reductionism, nomothetic, scientific
SLT - Determinism, Nurture, Partially reductionist, Nomothetic, Most Scientfic
Cog - determinism, n&n, Experimental reductionism, N&I, Most scientific
Biological - biological determinism, Nature, Biological reductionism, Nomothetic, Scientific
Psycho- Physic determinism, most nature, r&h, n&i, not scientific
Humanistic - free will, most nurture, Holism, Idiographic, Not scientific
61
Behaviourist strength -real world application
+the principles of conditioning have been applied to a wide range of real-world problems. Behaviourist principles are seen in CBT where the client learns a new association with a stimulus. For example, a client may have a fear of dogs, and the therapist will make them less scared by removing the fear and replacing it with a less negative emotion.
-> This increases the value of this approach due to it's widespread application.
62
Behaviourist limitation - environmental determinism
- The approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned -> ignores influence of free-will. Skinner suggested that free will was an illusion, that our decisions are a result of past conditioning.
- > This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour.
63
Vicarious reinforcement -SLT
-> Learning related to consequences of behaviour (others behaviours)
Behaviour that is seen to be rewarded is more likely to be copied = Vicarious reinforcement
64
Meditational processes -SLT
1. Attention
2. Retention - if behaviour is remembered
3. Motor reproduction - ability to do it
4. Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour
1st two relate to learning, last 2 relate to performing
65
Identification with roles models
- people are more likely to imitate behaviour of those they identify with
- role models are similar to observer, attractive & high status.
66
SLT Strength - real world application
- SL principles can account for how children learn from other people around them -> can explain how cultural norms are transmitted. This has proved an understanding of a range of behaviours, Like understanding gender roles.
- > This increases the value of SLT
67
SLT Limitation - relies on contrived lab studies
- Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of children's behaviour in lab settings -> problems with demand characteristics.
- >Main purpose of a bobo doll is too hit it, so the children in the studies may have been doing what they thought was expected.
->Therefore the research may tell us little about how children learn aggresion
68
Schema cog
- packages of information developed through experience
- 'mental framework' for interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
-with age schema becomes more detailed
69
theoretical models
- suggests that information flows through a sequence of stages: input, storage and retrieval.
e. g. multi-store model of memory
70
computer models
computer models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate human mind behaviour.
by running programmes, psychologists can test their ideas about information processing. e.g. Artificial Intelligence
71
cognitive neuroscience
-scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
- advances in brain scanning technology, means that we can describe the neurological basis of mental processing.
- > Tulving, linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of prefrontal cortex
72
Cognitive strengths (use of scientific and objective methods)
cognitive psychologists employed controlled and rigorous methods of study e.g. labs studies in, to infer cognitive processes.
- > two fields of biology and cognitive psychology come together to enhance the scientific basis of study.
- >this means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis.
73
cognitive strengths (application to every day life)
- the approach is dominant in psychology today & has been applied to a wide range of theoretical and practical contexts.
- > Artificial intelligence, and the development of robots, the treatment of depression and improving eyewitness testimony.
->this support the value of this approach
74
cognitive weakness (machine reductionism)
although there are similarities between the operations of the human mind and computers, the computer analogy has been criticised. For example, emotion & motivation have been shown to influence accuracy of recall e.g. in eyewitness accounts. These factors aren't considered within the computer analogy.
-> this suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
