Name and describe the six (6) types of conclusions
1.Logical Force:
Strong (strength of language) only, must, requires, every, mandatory, always.
Moderate (strength of language)
Weak (strength of language) - could, might, possibly, may, perhaps, some, occasionally.
- Causal - because, due to, leads to, results in.
- Conditional - if, then, only if
- Comparative - drawing a comparison between twp things “A is better than B”
- Declarative - talks about something being true/false.
- . Prescriptive - talks about how something SHOLUD be or OUGHT to be.
Name and describe the three (3) common indicators for conclusions.
- Conclusion words: thus, therefore, hence, so, consequently, evidently.
- Disagreement: 2 perspectives, shift in perspective roughly in the middle of an argument (but, however, yet, although, otherhand).
a.) Many people believe X, BUT they are wrong and here’s why. MC: “but they are wrong” P: “here’s why”
b.) Many people believe X, but they are wrong, & a new claim. MC: “new claim”
P: “but they are wrong” [supporting the new claim]. - Prescriptive lang & Attitude: it would be right/ good/ wrong/ moral/ ought to do ______.
What are the nine (9) common argument forms?
- Rejecting Alternatives
- Applying a general principle [ General-> Specific ] conclusion is the application of the principle.
- Appealing to an authority.
- Using a counterexample.
- Making an analogy.
- Using a line of reasoning to draw an absurd conclusion.
- Propsing an alternative cause for an observed effect.
- Countering a premise (though rare can happen)
- Countering an assumption/offering new evidence.
Name & describe the five (5) common types of disagreement patterns.
- Rejecting an assumption: Person B disagrees but doesn’t directly address the evidence person A gives.
- shows evidence while true is misleading.
- 2nd pov rejects an assumption made by 1st person. - Counterexample: concrete exampe that contradicts what is happening in pov #1.
- 2nd pov draws different interpretation of evidence: Pov #2 agrees w/ evidence but draws a different conclusion most common in causal argument.
- 2nd pov shows that the logic in pov #1 led to an unattainable conclusion: pov #2 accepts reasoning in pov #1 for sake of arguing but will show that same reason leads to something ridiculous/ false.
- Rejects evidence used by pov #1: rare but can happen.
Name and describe the six (6) types of premise(s)
- Conditional: AC needs to describe the conditional premise.
- Polls, surveys, experiments: Describes some experiments done & uses results as evidence.
- Opinions: Offers someone’s opinion, usually, an authority, opinion as evidence for the conclusion.
- Rejecting Alternatives: Stimulus gives a bunch of options & then rejects them individually just to end up at a particular option.
- Using an analogy.
- Using a principle: Stimulus gives us a general rule that is specified in the conclusion.
What kind of argument form is this?
Ari: Sports mascots shouldn’t be considered a part of a team. Sports team involve people working together, and mascots generally don’t interact with the players.
Jess: Soccer goalies don’t interact with the other players, but they are always considered a member of the team.
using a counter example.
What’s the difference between causal and probablity?
Causal: is the type of relationship
ex: absolute, conditional
Probability: the degree of likelihood/ certainty.
ex: all/most/probably/sometimes
They are NOT on the same spectrum.
What kind of argument form is this?
It is widely believed that mammals cannot fly. Since bats are mammals and bats can fly, this belief is clearly mistaken.
Using a counterexample.
What kind of argument form is this?
The students disagreed about whether the correct answer choice for the calculus problem was X or Y. However, Professor Janet, anoted mathematician, says it is X , so it must be X.
Appealing to an authority.
What kind of argument form is this?
All students at Morris Highschool study Biology durig their Sophmore year. So, Katie, who is a student at Morris, must have studied biology during her sophmore year.
Appealing to a General Principle.
What kind of argument form is this?
Martin: CGI animation is easier to produce than traditional hand-drawn animation, and CGI animation features do far better at the box office. Traditional animation will soon be entirely replaced by CGI.
Natalie: Traditional animation is experiencing increasing demans from audiences of independent films who dislike CGI.
Offering new evidence that challenges an assumption.
Which reading frame do you need to apply to Resolve/ Explain questions?
Reading for resolution ( Resolve/ Explain)
- Unlikely to get a whole argument, mostly just a series of facts.
Task: read for that the tension is between those facts
How do you attack an argument via analogy?
Whenever there’s an argument made via analogy & you want to attack it, you attack the analogy.
What kind of argument for is this?
Eunice says that since eating chocolate causes acne, i should stop eating chocolate but study says that eating chocolate does not cause acne.
countering a premise. It attacks the truth of Eunice’s premise
What kind of argument form is this?
The teacher hypothesized that the students were restless because it was raiing during recess, so they did not get to run around. Alternatively, the principle believes it is due to the boring nature of their math class.
Proposing an Alternative cause for an observed effect.
What kind of argument form is this?
Just as Ford’s reputation for producing a solid product helped it to succeed, our new clothing line must build a similar reputation to guarantee long-standing success.
Making an analogy.
What reading frame do you want to apply for the following question types?
flaw, parallel flaws, strengthen, weaken, necessary, sufficient, crux.
Reading for validity: (Flaw, Parallel Flaw, Strengthen Weaken, Necessary, Sufficient, Crux.)
- sure to get a whole argument (both premise & conclusion) as you’re reading look for the gap between the evidence and conclusion.
Ask:
“why doesn’t the evidence guarantee the conclusion?”
“ what else do you need to know?”
What kind of argument form is this?
For her vacation in January, Sheila could go to Canada, Florida, or Hawaii. However, it is cold in Canada and it is hurricane season in Florida, so Shiela will go to Hawaii.
Rejecting Alternatives
Wha kind of argument form is this?
My friend argued that he should get the last slice of pizza because he touched it first. By that reasoning, no one could eat any pizza at all except the chef who took it out of the oven.
using a line of reasoning to draw an absurd conclusion.
What are the four (4) fundamental reading frames?
- Reading for inference.
- Reading for validity.
- Reading for structure.
- Reading for resolution.
What reading frame do you want to apply for the implication family?
Reading for inference: (Implication family)
- assume stimulus we get is probably not going to be an actual argument.
- Think how different language in the stimulus can combine together (look for overlaps).
** If there are no overlaps then look for strong statements.**
POV: You identify that the stimulus is using an analogy. What do you ask yourself?
- Does the Author use this analogy as a way to clarify any unclear meaning in the conclusion? If not..
- Does the author use the analogy to draw or lay a foundation for a similarity or difference?
What are the nine (9) common argument forms?
- Eliminating alternative options.
- Applying a general principle (conclusion is the application of the general -> specific).
- Appealing to an authority.
- Using a counter example.
- Making an analogy or comparison.
- Using a line of reasoing to draw an absurd conclusion.
- Proposing an alternate explaination
- Countering a premise
- Countering an assumption
** Remember: Whenever there is an argument via analogy & you want to argue against it, you attack the analogy **
When logical reasoning arguments involve comparisons, these three (3) things are often true..
i. the support uses a comparison, but the conclusion doesn’t need it.
ii. the conclusion is a comparison but the support isn’t about a comparison.
iii. the support & the conclusion offer two mismatching comparisons.
