Arguments Based on Reason

Question 1

Who was Anselm and what was his role?

Answer 1

Anselm was a monk and the first Archbishop of Canterbury

He aimed to help Christians better understand God rather than convince non-believers.

Question 2

In Anselm’s work Proslogian, how does he define God?

Answer 2

God is a being ‘that than which nothing greater can be thought’

This definition implies that even atheists must have some understanding of God to deny His existence.

Question 3

What is the essence of Anselm’s First Argument regarding God’s existence?

Answer 3

• God is a being ‘that than which nothing greater can be thought’
• Things can exist in the mind or in both the mind and reality
• A real being is better than an imaginary one
• God must exist in reality, not just in the mind

If God only exists in our heads, we could conceive of something greater, contradicting the definition of God.

Question 4

According to Anselm, why must God exist in reality?

Answer 4

Because the concept of God would be surpassed by an actual, existent God

If God does not exist, the definition of God being the greatest thought does not hold.

Question 5

Who was Gaunilo and what was his stance on Anselm’s argument?

Answer 5

A Christian monk who thought Anselm’s argument was incoherent

Gaunilo believed Anselm’s argument needed to be proved wrong.

Question 6

What did Gaunilo suggest about Anselm’s reasoning?

Answer 6

It could be used to prove the existence of anything conceivable, substituting God for an island

He argued that if one could conceive of the greatest conceivable island, it must exist in reality.

Question 7

According to Gaunilo, what must exist in reality?

Answer 7

The greatest conceivable island

He argued that it is better to exist in both reality and the mind rather than in the mind alone.

Question 8

What is Gaunilo’s criticism regarding the island argument?

Answer 8

No one has proven anything with this argument

No evidence has shown that any existence was there in the first place.

Question 9

Fill in the blank: Gaunilo argues that you cannot conceive the island into existence, just as you cannot define _______ into existence as the greatest being.

Answer 9

God

This highlights the limitations of Anselm’s argument.

Question 10

Anselm argued that Gaunilo’s criticisms were correct in the case of an island, but not comparable to God because:

Answer 10

• The Ontological Argument works only for God
• God has necessary existence
• The island exists contingently

Anselm stated that we can conceive of a perfect island not existing, but we cannot conceive of God not existing.

Question 11

What is the definition of God according to Anselm’s second argument?

Answer 11

A being than which nothing greater can be thought

This definition is central to Anselm’s Ontological Argument.

Question 12

According to Anselm, contingent objects are inferior to necessary objects because they:

Answer 12

• Depend on necessary objects for their existence

This distinction is crucial in Anselm’s reasoning about God’s existence.

Question 13

Anselm argues that God cannot exist contingently because:

Answer 13

If God existed contingently, we could think of something greater than Him

This would contradict the definition of God as the greatest conceivable being.

Question 14

What does Anselm believe to be impossible?

Answer 14

God not existing

Question 15

Who was Plantinga and what was his stance on the ontological argument?

Answer 15

A Christian philosopher who agreed with the ontological argument

Plantinga’s work addresses criticisms of the argument, particularly those raised by Gaunilo.

Question 16

What is an intrinsic maximum according to Plantinga?

Answer 16

A limit on how much of something we could have

This concept is used to differentiate between things that can have limits, like knowledge, and those that do not, like size.

Question 17

Why does Plantinga argue that the idea of a perfect island is incoherent?

Answer 17

There is no intrinsic maximum for the idea of a perfect island; it can always be imagined as better

This contrasts with the concept of God, which does not have such limitations.

Question 18

What does perfect power mean in the context of Plantinga’s argument?

Answer 18

Being able to do everything

This illustrates that the idea of God does not have an intrinsic maximum.

Question 19

What did Aquinas argue against despite being convinced of the existence of God?

Answer 19

Anselm’s ontological argument

Aquinas believed that the existence of God could only be proven through a posteriori arguments.

Question 20

What type of arguments did Aquinas reject for the existence of God?

Answer 20

A priori arguments

He provided three reasons for this rejection.

Question 21

Aquinas rejected that the existence of God is self-evident because he contrasted which two statements?

Answer 21

‘God does not exist’ and ‘truth does not exist’

He argued that while truth must exist, it is not impossible to accept that God does not exist.

Question 22

What did Aquinas question regarding Anselm’s definition of God?

Answer 22

If everyone would accept it

He believed that finite humans cannot fully understand the infinite greatness of God.

Question 23

Aquinas doubted whether a shared concept of God could establish what?

Answer 23

The existence of God

He argued that a shared concept only indicates mental existence, not actual existence.

Question 24

According to Aquinas, the ontological argument only establishes what?

Answer 24

That God exists in our minds.

This does not imply that God exists in reality.

Question 25

What is Descartes' **Ontological Argument**?

Answer 25

The argument posits that God is a **supremely perfect being** with all attributes being perfection ## Footnote Descartes believed we possess innate knowledge of concepts, including the concept of God.

Question 26

According to Descartes, what are **predicates**?

Answer 26

Things associated and necessary for a certain object to exist ## Footnote For example, predicates define the essential qualities of objects like triangles.

Question 27

What is a necessary quality of a **triangle** according to Descartes?

Answer 27

It must have **3 angles** that equal 180 degrees ## Footnote Without these properties, it would not be considered a triangle.

Question 28

In Descartes' view, what is part of the **predicate of God**?

Answer 28

Necessary existence ## Footnote Just as a triangle must have 3 angles, God must necessarily exist.

Question 29

Who offered a challenge to the **ontological arguments**?

Answer 29

Immanuel Kant ## Footnote His criticism was specifically aimed at Descartes but can also apply to Anselm.

Question 30

What does Kant argue about **existence**?

Answer 30

Existence cannot be a predicate ## Footnote Predicates describe what something is like and help us identify things.

Question 31

According to Kant, what is the purpose of a **predicate**?

Answer 31

To enlarge our concepts of things ## Footnote Existence does not do that as it tells us nothing about the object.

Question 32

Kant used the example of a **hundred thalers** to illustrate his point. What was his conclusion?

Answer 32

A hundred real thalers is the same as a hundred possible thalers ## Footnote Adding 'exists' does not change anything about the thalers.

Question 33

What does Kant say about **a priori arguments**?

Answer 33

They cannot establish the existence of something ## Footnote He agreed with Hume that sense experience must be used in all existential propositions.

Question 34

Kant argues that there is no contradiction in saying that '**God does not exist**'. Why?

Answer 34

Existence is not a predicate ## Footnote Unlike 'unmarried' in the term bachelor, which is a contradiction.

Question 35

What is the implication of Kant's argument regarding predicates and **existence**?

Answer 35

We can apply predicates and still not know whether something exists ## Footnote Adding existence as a predicate is pointless.

Question 36

According to **Russell**, what are the two types of sentences?

Answer 36

* Predicative * Existential ## Footnote Predicative sentences add something, while existential sentences state that something actually exists.

Question 37

What does **Russell** argue about everyday language use?

Answer 37

It allows talking about non-existent things with apparent meaning ## Footnote This occurs because we focus on predicative statements and ignore existential ones.

Question 38

How does **Russell** illustrate the concept of predicates for non-existent things?

Answer 38

By describing the current King of France as being bald ## Footnote This description is understandable but does not align with the fact that France is a Republic.

Question 39

What is the similarity between describing the King of France and discussing **God** according to **Russell**?

Answer 39

We can assign predicates to God, but His existence remains uncertain ## Footnote This highlights the challenge of discussing non-existent entities.

Question 40

What is **G.E. Moore's** stance on existence as a predicate?

Answer 40

He believes existence does not work like other predicates ## Footnote Moore agrees with Russell and Kant on this distinction.

Question 41

Provide an example used by **Moore** to illustrate his point about predicates.

Answer 41

* A: Some tame tigers do not growl * B: Some tame tigers do not exist ## Footnote A is meaningful, while B does not provide information about the characteristics of non-existent tigers.

Question 42

What does **Moore** conclude about the phrases 'does exist' and 'doesn't exist'?

Answer 42

They are not the same as other predicates ## Footnote Ignoring this difference can lead to confusion, which Moore argues is a flaw in the Ontological Argument.