1
Q
t soil erosion affects
A
about 13% of India’s land area.
2
Q
Agriculture accounts
A
for approximately 80% of India’s total water use,
3
Q
India’s Watershed Area:
A
India has approximately 2.6 million square kilometers of watershed area, which is about 79% of the country’s land area ([Source: National Remote Sensing Centre
4
Q
- Agricultural Dependency:
A
About 60% of India’s agricultural land is dependent on watershed management for irrigation and water supply ([Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare]
5
Q
- Rainfed Agriculture:
A
Approximately 40% of India’s net sown area is rainfed and relies heavily on effective watershed management ([Source: Indian Council of Agricultural Research]
6
Q
WATERSHED
A
- Palfu Watershed (Madhya Pradesh):
- Madhya Pradesh Watershed Development Project
- Sujanpur Tira Watershed (Himachal Pradesh)
- Soma Watershed (Rajasthan):
5.Deccan Development Society (DDS) Watershed Project (Telangana)
7
Q
IWM
A
As of recent reports, IWD programs cover approximately 10% of India’s total land area, focusing on critical watersheds across the country.
8
Q
IWM
A
- Enhanced Water Availability: In the Arvari River basin in Rajasthan,
- Improved Soil Health: In the Malkangiri district of Odisha,
- Increased Agricultural Productivity:: In the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh,
- Reduced Flooding and Waterlogging: In the Kutch region of Gujarat, check dams and other water retention structures
- Biodiversity Conservation: In the Western Ghats, watershed development projects have helped restore native vegetation and improve habitat conditions for wildlife.
- Sustainable Livelihoods:: In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, IWD projects have supported eco-tourism and non-timber forest products, providing alternative livelihoods for local communities.
- Community Empowerment: In the Bundelkhand region, local communities have been actively involved in watershed management, leading to increased ownership and sustainable practices.
- Climate Resilience:: In the Chhattisgarh state, integrated watershed development has enhanced the region’s resilience to climate variability and extreme weather events.
9
Q
- Mulching with Straw:
A
In a dryland maize field, applying 7 cm of straw mulch reduced ET losses by 30% and increased yield by 15%.
10
Q
- Drip Irrigation in Vineyard:
A
Using drip irrigation with a flow rate of 3 L/hour/plant reduced water use by 40% compared to traditional irrigation.
11
Q
- Windbreaks with Eucalyptus:
A
A 4-row windbreak of Eucalyptus trees reduced wind speed by 60% and improved soil moisture retention in an adjacent wheat field.
12
Q
social forests
A
- West Bengal Social Forestry Project:
- Engaged local communities in afforestation activities, resulting in significant green cover increase and improved livelihoods.
- Promoted the cultivation of fast-growing tree species like eucalyptus and acacia.
- Tamil Nadu Social Forestry Project:
- Focused on the rehabilitation of degraded forests and wastelands through community participation.
- Provided fuelwood, fodder, and timber to rural communities, enhancing their economic conditions.
- Joint Forest Management (JFM) in Andhra Pradesh:
- Involved local communities in the management of forest resources.
- Improved forest health and provided economic benefits to participating communities.
13
Q
agroforestry
A
- National Agroforestry Policy (2014):
- Objective: Promote integrated tree-based farming systems, enhance livelihoods, and address environmental issues.
- Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF):
- Part of: National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
- Objective: Expand the area under agroforestry and provide technical and financial support to farmers.
- Green India Mission:
- Objective: Enhance forest and tree cover, restore degraded ecosystems, and increase carbon sequestration.
- Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP):
- Objective: Empower women farmers through sustainable agricultural practices.
14
Q
Forest Cover in India:
A
As per the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021, India has a total forest and tree cover of 80.9 million hectares, which constitutes 24.62% of the country’s geographical area.
Source: India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021
15
Q
Biodiversity:
A
India’s forests are home to around 7% of the world’s biodiversity. The country has over 47,000 species of plants and 89,000 species of animals.
Source: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India
16
Q
agroforestry valueaddition
A
- Madhya Pradesh - Teak and Intercropping: Processing teak timber into high-quality furniture and utilizing intercrop(legumes and vegetable) produce for local markets.
- Karnataka - Areca Palm and Spices: Processing cardamom and pepper into packaged spices, adding value to both primary and secondary products.
- Kerala - Rubber Agroforestry: Processing rubber into various products and marketing fruits(pineapples and bananas.) locally and nationally
- Assam - Bamboo-Based Enterprises: Producing and selling bamboo furniture and handicrafts, adding economic value to bamboo cultivation.
- Himachal Pradesh - Apple Orchards with Understory Crops:Processing apples into juices, sauces, and jams, and marketing additional crops for local consumption.
17
Q
soil
A
Soil is the natural body composed of minerals, organic matter, water, and air, serving as a medium for plant growth. It is formed through the weathering of rocks and the decomposition of organic matter, resulting in a complex mixture that supports life.
18
Q
Hydrolysis of feldspar to clay:
A
2K AlSi_3O_8 + 11H_2O + 2H^+ ———->2K^+ + Al_2Si_2O_5(OH)_4 + 4H_4SiO_4
19
Q
Podzolization**:
A
Organic acids + Fe/Al oxides ———–>Fe/Al-humus complexes
20
Q
Laterization:
A
Primary minerals + H_2O + O_2 ————-> Secondary minerals + Si(OH)_4 +Fe/Al oxides
21
Q
- Salinization:.
A
NaCl (from water)—————–>{Na}^+ + {Cl}^-
22
Q
- Calcification:
A
CaCO}_3 ————>{Ca}^{2+} + {CO}_3^{2-}
23
Q
- Gleying:
A
{Fe}^{3+} + {e}^- ————–>{Fe}^{2+}
24
Q
- Hydrolysis:
A
- Example: Feldspar in granite reacts with carbonic acid to form clay minerals.
2KAlSi_3O_8 + 11H_2O + 2H^+ \rightarrow 2K^+ + Al_2Si_2O_5(OH)_4 + 4H_4SiO_4
25
- **Oxidation**:
- **Example**: Iron-rich minerals in rocks oxidize to form rust (iron oxide).
4Fe + 3O_2 + 6H_2O \rightarrow 4Fe(OH)_3
26
- **Carbonation**:
- **Example**: Limestone dissolves in carbonic acid to form calcium bicarbonate.
CaCO_3 + H_2CO_3 \rightarrow Ca^{2+} + 2HCO_3^-
27
weed resistnace
1. **Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)**: Various species, including Palmer amaranth and waterhemp, have developed resistance to multiple herbicide modes of action, including glyphosate and ALS inhibitors.
2. **Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyardgrass)**: This weed has developed resistance to herbicides such as ALS inhibitors and ACCase inhibitors.
3. Phalaris minor dev resistance against isoproturon
28
biology weed control
**Insects**: - **Cactoblastis cactorum**: Used to control prickly pear cactus (Opuntia spp.) in Australia.
2. **Pathogens**: - **Colletotrichum gloeosporioides**: A fungal pathogen used to control tropical soda apple (Solanum viarum) in the United States.
3. **Grazing Animals**: - **Goats**: Used to control various invasive weed species, such as kudzu (Pueraria montana) and leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula).
29
1. **Genetic Engineering of Bioagents**:
- **Modified Pathogens**:- For example, genetically modified strains of *Colletotrichum gloeosporioides* have been developed to improve control of invasive weeds like tropical soda apple.
30
2. **RNA Interference (RNAi) Technology**:
- **RNAi-based Bioagents**: . For example, RNAi constructs targeting vital genes in Palmer amaranth (*Amaranthus palmeri*) are being investigated for their potential to control this resistant weed.
31
3. **Augmentative Biological Control**:
- **Releases of Mass-reared Bioagents**: An example is the release of the gall fly *Urophora affinis* to control spotted knapweed (*Centaurea maculosa*) in the western United States.
32
. **Microbial Bioherbicides**:
- **Formulated Microbial Products**: For instance, *Pseudomonas fluorescens* strain ACK55 has been formulated and used to control cheatgrass (*Bromus tectorum*) in rangelands.
33
5. **Endophytic Fungi**:
- **Endophyte-Infected Grasses**: For example, endophyte-infected tall fescue (*Festuca arundinacea*) has been shown to suppress the growth of neighboring weeds.
34
1. **Glyphosate**
- **Formulation**: Liquid (e.g., Roundup, Glyphosate 41%)
- **Mode of Action**: Systemic, inhibits amino acid synthesis.
- **Usage**: Broad-spectrum herbicide used in various crops, including soybeans and corn.
35
2. **2,4-D**
- **Formulation**: Liquid, Granular
- **Mode of Action**: Systemic, mimics plant hormones to cause uncontrolled growth.
- **Usage**: Selective herbicide for broadleaf weeds in cereals and pastures.
36
3. **Atrazine**
- **Formulation**: Granular, Liquid
- **Mode of Action**: Pre-emergence, inhibits photosynthesis.
- **Usage**: Used primarily in corn and sorghum fields to control broadleaf and grassy weeds.
37
4. **Paraquat**
- **Formulation**: Liquid
- **Mode of Action**: Contact herbicide, disrupts photosynthesis.
- **Usage**: Non-selective herbicide used for weed control in various crops.
38
1. **Crop Injury**:
For instance, residual glyphosate can impact crops like soybeans or wheat if they are planted in fields where glyphosate was recently used.
39
3. **Soil Health**:
For example, residual herbicides like atrazine can impact beneficial soil microbes, affecting nutrient cycling and soil structure.
40
4. **Environmental Impact**: .
herbicides like atrazine and metolachlor have been detected in water bodies, impacting water quality and aquatic life.
41
**Herbicide-Tolerant Crops**
-
**Example**: **Roundup Ready Crops** - Crops like soybeans, corn, and cotton that are genetically modified to be tolerant to glyphosate, allowing farmers to apply glyphosate to control weeds without harming the crop.
42
3. **Herbicide Mixtures and Tank
-
**Example**: **Premix Herbicides** - Products like **Dual Magnum** (a combination of metolachlor and s-metolachlor) and **Authority MTZ** (a mix of sulfentrazone and metribuzin) offer broad-spectrum weed control by targeting multiple weed species and reducing the risk of resistance.
43
4. **Advanced Formulations**
-
**Example**: **Controlled-Release Herbicides** - Formulations such as **The Halo** (a controlled-release formulation of dicamba) provide extended weed control by releasing the herbicide over a longer period, reducing the need for multiple applications.
44
5. **Herbicide-resistant Weeds Management*
- **Example**: **Enlist Duo** - A herbicide combination of glyphosate and 2,4-D specifically designed for use with Enlist™ crops that are resistant to both herbicides. This system helps manage glyphosate-resistant weed populations more effectively.
45
6. **Herbicide Application Timing and Modeling**
- **Example**: **Weed Management Decision Support Tools** - Tools like **WeedSOFT** use predictive models to determine the best timing and herbicide options based on current weed conditions and forecasted weather.
46
8. **Target-Specific Herbicides**
-
**Example**: **Raptor (imazamox)** - A herbicide that is highly effective against broadleaf and grassy weeds in legumes like chickpeas and lentils, with minimal impact on the crops.
47
9. **Smart Spraying Systems**
- **Example**: **Robotic Weeders** - Autonomous robots like **EcoWeeder** and **Raptor** use machine vision to identify and spray weeds selectively, reducing herbicide use and environmental impact.
48
10. **Herbicide Drift Reduction Technologies**:
-
**Example**: **Drift Reduction Adjuvants** - Products like **Garlon 4** and **Liberty®** include drift-reducing additives that help ensure herbicides stay where they are intended and reduce the risk of harming non-target plants.
49
1. **Contact Herbicides**
- **Examples**:
- **Paraquat**: A non-selective contact herbicide used to control a wide range of annual and perennial weeds. It works by disrupting photosynthesis.
50
2. **Systemic Herbicides**
- **Examples**:
- **Glyphosate**: A non-selective systemic herbicide that inhibits the shikimic acid pathway, which is essential for amino acid synthesis in plants and some microorganisms.
51
4. **Post-Emergence Herbicides**
- **Examples**:
- **Dicamba**: A selective post-emergence herbicide that affects broadleaf weeds by disrupting plant hormone balance.
51
3. **Pre-Emergence Herbicides**
- **Examples**:
- **Pendimethalin**: A pre-emergence herbicide that inhibits cell division, preventing weed seeds from germinating and developing.
52
5. **Soil-Applied Herbicides**
53
6. **Post-Harvest Herbicides**
- **Examples**:
- **Roundup** (glyphosate): Often used as a post-harvest treatment to clear fields of weeds before planting a new crop.
54
1. **Insects**
.
- **Zygogramma bicolorata**
- **Target**: Parthenium hysterophorus
- **Description**: A beetle that feeds on parthenium, causing defoliation and reduced seed production.
- **Rhinocyllus conicus**
- **Target**: Carduus spp. (Thistles)
- **Description**: A weevil that feeds on thistle flowers, reducing seed production and growth.
55
2. **Pathogens**
- **Puccinia abrupta** var. **partheniicola**
- **Target**: Parthenium hysterophorus
- **Description**: A rust fungus that infects and kills parthenium plants, reducing their spread.
- **Alternaria helianthi**
- **Target**: Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Common ragweed)
- **Description**: A fungus that causes leaf spots and reduces weed vigor and seed production
56
3. **Grazing Animals**
- **Goats**
- **Target**: Various invasive weeds, including **Kudzu** and **Puncturevine**
- **Description**: Goats graze on weeds, reducing their biomass and seed production.
57
Bioherbicides
Examples:
1. **Mycoherbicides**
- **Colletotrichum gloeosporioides** f. sp. **aeschynomene**
- **Target**: Aeschynomene species
- **Description**: A fungal pathogen used as a bioherbicide to control certain aquatic and wetland weeds.
2. **Bacterial Herbicides**
- **Bacillus thuringiensis** (Bt)
- **Target**: Various broadleaf weeds
- **Description**: A bacterium that produces toxins affecting weed growth.
3. **Plant Extracts**
- **Allelopathic Plant Extracts**
- **Example**: **Garlic extract** or **Eucalyptus oil**
- **Target**: Various weed species
- **Description**: Natural plant extracts with allelopathic effects that inhibit the growth of target weeds.
58
1. **Single Site Resistance (Target Site Resistance)**
- **Atrazine Resistance**: **Echinochloa colona** (Jungle rice) has developed resistance to atrazine due to changes in the D1 protein, which is the target site for the herbicide.
59
2. **Non-Target Site Resistance**
- **Paraquat Resistance**: **Convolvulus arvensis** (Field bindweed) shows resistance to paraquat through enhanced detoxification mechanisms that break down the herbicide more efficiently.
60
3. **Multiple Herbicide Resistance**
- **Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri)**: This weed has developed resistance to multiple herbicides, including glyphosate, atrazine, and 2,4-D, complicating management efforts.
61
4. **Cross-Resistance*
- **Phalaris minor (Little seed canarygrass)**: Resistance to **Clodinafop** (an ACCase inhibitor) can lead to resistance to other ACCase inhibitors like **Pinoxaden**.
62
rice weeds
1. Echinochloa spp. (Barnyard grass)
2. Cyperus difformis (Smallflower Umbrella Sedge)
3. Fimbristylis miliacea (Grasslike Fimbry)
4. Ischaemum rugosum (Wrinklegrass)
5. Scirpus spp. (Bulrush)
6. Sagittaria trifolia (Arrowhead)
7. Ludwigia parviflora (Water Primrose)
63
wheat weeds
1. Phalaris minor (Littleseed Canarygrass)
2. Avena ludoviciana (Wild Oat)
3. Chenopodium album (Lamb's Quarters)
4. Melilotus alba (White Sweetclover)
5. Rumex dentatus (Toothed Dock)
6. Medicago spp. (Alfalfa)
7. Convolvulus arvensis (Field Bindweed)
64
sugarcane weeds
1. Cyperus rotundus (Purple Nutsedge)
2. Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda Grass)
3. Echinochloa colona (Jungle Rice)
4. Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass)
5. Imperata cylindrica (Cogongrass)
6. Brachiaria mutica (Para Grass)
7. Panicum maximum (Guinea Grass)
65
cotton
1. Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)
2. Cyperus esculentus (Yellow Nutsedge)
3. Eleusine indica (Goosegrass)
4. Xanthium strumarium (Common Cocklebur)
5. Conyza canadensis (Horseweed)
6. Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium)
7. Tribulus terrestris (Puncturevine)
66
pulses
1. Chenopodium album (Lamb's Quarters)
2. Cuscuta spp. (Dodder)
3. Euphorbia hirta (Asthma Weed)
4. Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)
5. Digitaria spp. (Crabgrass)
6. Portulaca oleracea (Purslane)
7. Cyperus rotundus (Purple Nutsedge)
67
groundnut weeds
1. Arachis hypogaea (Groundnut)
2. Cyperus rotundus (Purple Nutsedge)
3. Digitaria spp. (Crabgrass)
4. Echinochloa colona (Jungle Rice)
5. Euphorbia hirta (Asthma Weed)
6. Amaranthus spp. (Pigweed)
7. Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium)
68
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AGRICULTURE 2
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