Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Score
Norm-referenced scores provided information on how a person performed relative to others in the group (SS, ss, percentiles, or T-scores).
Criterion-referenced scores provide information on how an individual person did on a given task (e.g. # items correct).
Objective versus Subjective tests
Ojbective tests do not rely on a rate’s judgment for scoring and it has a scoring keey used to score items. Subjective scored tests involve some element of the rater’s judgment to obtain a score.
Normative vs. Ipsative score
Normative score tells how someone perfomed relative to others (T-score, percentile rank). An ipsative score provides information on the relative strengths and weakness of the person only and does not compare the person to others (Strong Campbell vocational test).
Empirical Criterion Keying
A process for selection items to be included in a test, in which items are keyed to an external criterion and are intended to differentiate between groups of people who have a particular trait and those who do not.
Spearman vs. Thurston vs. Chattell vs. Gardner vs Sternberg vs. Cattell-Horn-Carroll
Charles Spearman prosoed that intellengence is a single factor which he termed “g factor) for general intelligence that is responsible for a person’s overall performance on tests of mental ability. He concluded that the factor could be expressed as a single number such as a IQ score.
Raymond Cattell’s research led him to concluded that Spearman’s concept of general intelligence could be broken down into 2 relatively independent components that he called fluid and crystalised intelligence.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll research is the result of extensive factor analyses, this theory is considered to be the most empirically validated theory of human intelligence. It consists of 3 levels of intelligence: Stratum III: general intelligence or “g”, Stratum II: 10 broad cognitive abilities, and Stratum I: 70 narrow cognitive abilities
Louis Thurston identified seven distinct primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, word fluency, associative memory, and spatial visulization.
Howard Gardner describes 8 various types of intelligence that are based on one’s ability or skills that are valued within different cultures: visual-spatial, verbal-liguistic, bodily-kenesthetic, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, musical, intra-peraonal, and naturistic. He also believed at individuals has strengths and weakness across these skills.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory- focus on thinking process used to arrive at answers to problems. He proposed 3 aspects of intelligence : (1) the internal components (we use to acquire, store, perceive, and remember), (2) the capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and (3) the ability to apply past experiences to current novel problems.
Fluid vs. Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence is the capacity to acquire new knowledge and solve new problems , and it is partially determined by biological and genetic factors. It declines with age.
Crystallized Intelligence refers to knowledge and learning gained over one’s lifetime through an interaction between fuild intelligence and environment (culture, education, etc.) It remains stable or increase slightly with age.
WAIS-IV.WISC-IV Factors
WAIS-IV ages 16- 90:11
- Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)- measures similarities, vocabulary, information. Comprehension supplemental subtest.
- Perceptual Reasoning Index(PRI)- block design, matrix reasoning, and visual puzzles. Picture completion and figure weights are supplement subtest.
- Working Memory Index (WMI)- digit span and arithmetic. Letter-number sequencing is supplemental subtest.
- Processing Speed Index (PSI)- symbol search and coding. Cancellation is a supplemental subtest.
- General Ability Index (GAI)- reports VCI and PRI when want to minimize the influence of WMI and PSI.
WISC-IV ages 6-16:11
1. Verbal
WAIS-IV.WISC-IV Factors
WAIS-IV ages 16- 90:11
- Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)- measures similarities, vocabulary, information. Comprehension supplemental subtest.
- Perceptual Reasoning Index(PRI)- block design, matrix reasoning, and visual puzzles. Picture completion and figure weights are supplement subtest.
- Working Memory Index (WMI)- digit span and arithmetic. Letter-number sequencing is supplemental subtest.
- Processing Speed Index (PSI)- symbol search and coding. Cancellation is a supplemental subtest.
- General Ability Index (GAI)- reports VCI and PRI when want to minimize the influence of WMI and PSI, the timed assessments.
WISC-IV ages 6-16:11
- Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)- similarities, vocabulary, and comprehension. Supplemental subtests are information and word reasoning.
- Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)- bloack design, picture concepts, and matrix reasoning. Picture completion is a supplemental subtest.
- Working Memory Index (WMI)- digit spand and letter-numbe sequencing. Arthmetic is a supplemental subtest.
- Processing Speed Index (PSI)- coding and symbol search. Cancellation is a supplemental subtest.
- General Ability Index (GAI) - VCI and PRI are used when want to minimize the influence of WMI and PSI, the timed assessments.
Patterns or Scatter Analysis on WAIS or WISC
- Children with chromic middle ear infections (chronic otitis media) often demonstrate log-term deficits in language capacities, the entire VCI will often be depressed on the WISC-IV.
- VCI is considered a form of crystallized intelligence and remains intact and may even improve with age.
- PRI is considered a form of fluid intelligence and tends to peak in adolescence and declines with age.
- People with more education and higher SES may obtain higher VCI than PRI; People with less education and lower SES may show higher PRI than VCI
- VCI subtests tend to be more culturally loaded than PRI and result in a understimate of a person’s intelligence if the are a minority, ESL learner, or hearing challenges.
- PRI subtests are not appropriate with individuals with impaired motor functionng.
- PRI subtes are more susceptible to the effects of anxiety and depression
- Persons with a history of substance dependence or schizophrenia have a tendency for PRI to be lower than VCI.
* 9. Scatter analysis or pattern analysis looks at discrepancies between subtests. Such analysis has not been found to be valid for making diagnosis. Measurement error alone may account for difference noted between subtests.
When to use PRI vs. VCI
The PRI is more appropriate to use when an individual of a different cultural background, limited English skills, or hearing issues. While the VCI should be used for individuals with impaired motor functioning.
What do L, F, and K measure of MMPI
L-Scale is a the lie scale. A high score indicates that the person is trying to present themself in an overly favorable light.
F-Scale is the infrequency “fake bad” scale. A high score suggest psychotic processes, a tremendous degree of distress, or an attempt to appear in ag negative light that could reflect a cry for help. Extremely high F score (above 100) suggests malingering and invaidates the profile.
K-Scale is the guardedmess scale. High scores suggest that the person is attempting to present themself in a positive light (fake good). A low score suggest that the person is excessively open, has poor ego strength, and teams to openly reveal their negative aspects.
The K correction is uses the K -Scale to correct for guardedness. When a person attempts to “fake good” they have a low F and a high K. When the person attempts to “fake bad” they have a high F and a low K.
MMPI-2 vs. MMPI-2-RF
The MMPI was developed using the empirical-criterion keying, but the MMPI-2 was not. The MMPI-2 is based on 567 true-false items and includes 3 validity scales (L, F, and K) and provide information on the rater’s test-taking approach and if the profile is valid.
The MMPI-2-RF consist of 338 items linked to current models of psychopathology and personality. It provides an alternative to the MMPI-2 and is not a replacement.
WAIS-IV and WISC-IV Index score that delcine with age (from the most decline to the least)
Processing Speed Index (PSI)
Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
Working Memory Index (WMI)
“Hold Test”
WAIS-IV’s vocabulary and information are good estimates of pre-morbid functioning.
Floors and celings of cognitive assessments
WISC-IV high floor (IQ of 40) and low ceiling (IQ of 160)
Standford-Binet-5 has lower floor (IQ in teens) and higher ceiling (IQ of 180), making a good choice or assessing both cognitive impairements and giftedness
Raven’s Progressive Matrices
One of the best non-verbal tests of intelligence for children and adults for measuring “g factor”. It consist of a series of abstract patterns with one piece missing.
Infant Tests of Intelligence
These instruments such as Bayley’s tend to be a poor predictor of intellengece in later years because they assess abilities that are not measure for children and adults. Howver, extremely low performance tends to predict lower intelligence in subsequent years.
10 Clinical Scales of MMPI-2
Scale 1- Hypochondriasis (HS): high scores have a variety of physical complaints and are illness-focused.
Scale 2- Depression (D): measures depression, general dissatisfaction, and pessimism
Scale 3- Hysteria (HY) high score indicates physical complaints, a defensive denial of emotional or interpersonal problems, demands fo affection and support, and social disinhibition
Scale 4- Psychopatic Deviate (PD): measure general level of social adjustment. High scores = manipulative, hositle, impulsive, poor judgment, and problem with authority, commitments, and family. Substance use is common with elevations of PD.
Scale 5- Masculinity- Femininity (MF): Male high scorers have aesthetic interest and express warmth, while low scoring males have traditionally more masculine interests.
Females with high scores endorse traditionally male interests and are confident and logical; while low scoring females are passive and yielding.
Scale 6- Paronaia (PA): High scores are suspicious, resentful, angry, and externalized lame; they also tend to misinterprete others’ motives and are imterpersonally sensitive.
Scale 7- Psychasthenia (PT); High scores indicate fear, anxiety, compulsions, obsession, indecisiveness, and ruminative self-doubt. Elevations suggest tension, worry, and uncertainty. Along with Scale 2 (Depression), an elevation on this scale is a good overall measure of distress.
Scale 8- Schizophrenia (SC): High scores indicate feelings of social and/or emotional alienation and misunderstanding, confusion and disorganization, lability and impulsivity. Extremely high scores are consistent with poor contact with reality, unusual thinking, delusions, and hallucinations.
Scale 9- Hypomania (MA): High scores suggest overactivity, poor impulse control, excessive speech, flight of ideas, agitation, grandiosity, restlessness, and irritability.
Scale 0- Social Interversion (SI): High scorers are typically shy, unassertive, lack confidence, and have limited social skills and interactions.
Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-III)
It is an objective measure of personality consisting of 175 true-false items. It corresponds with DMS-IV and was normed on clinical populations and should not be used with normal populations as it might exaggerate psychopathology.
Rorschach
This is a projective personality test that consit of 10 symmetrical inkblots and is used to assess the client’s personality structure: the emotional, behavioral, intepersonal, perceptual, and cognitve aspects of the person’s functioning.
Rorschach Scoring System
Every response is scored based on 4 criteria:
- Content- the specific category a response belongs to e.g. clothings, science, whole human
- Location- the area of the blot that the person used to develop the response
- Form Quality- is determined by how accurately the response relates to the form of the inkblot.
- Developmental Quality- is determined by evaluating each response in terms of its degree of integration.
Rorschach Performance Asessment System (R-PAS)
released in 2011, designed to decrase variability among examiners, align the test with evidence base, and simply procedures and presentation data
Neuropsychological Tests
Neuropsychological tests measure perceptual, motor, verbal, memory, and cognitive functioning; functional impact of brain damage; disease processess; and strengths and weakness of a client
Common Neuropsychological Tests and Batteries
Wechsler Memory Scale- measure verbal and non-verbal memory
Wisconsin Card Sort Test and Stroop Test - measure cognitive functioning (problem solving and cognitive flexibility)
Bender Visual-Motor Festalt Test- measures perceptual and motor abilities
Halstead Reitan and Luria Nebraska- are comprehensive batteries that measure neuropsychological functioning.
Folstein Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) - a brief, easy to administer to screen for cognitive impairments and track cognitive changes over time.
