psychodynamic approach - tripartite personality
an assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that behaviour can be influenced be the tripartite personality.Freud stated that the adult personality consists of 3 parts . The id - operates on the pleasure principle that we are born with is impulsive unconscious and demands pleasure and satisfaction. The ego operates on the reality principle is conscious and rational. It balances the demands of the other two parts . Thirdly, the superego (operates on the morality principle) is the part of the personality concerned with right and wrong. It contains our ideal self and is learned through identification with our parents. The id and superego are often in conflict and the ego has to act as a referee to resolve the conflict. Depending on the dynamics of these three parts of our personality, we may display certain behaviours and personality traits. For example, if a person has a dominant id the ego may not be able to balance its demands and the person may be impulsive,selfish or take risks .
psychodynamic approach - influences of childhood
An assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that behaviour can be explained by the influence of childhood experiences.
Freud suggested that our childhood experiences shape our adult
entdood experse our adule
personality. He proposed that we go through a number of important developmental stages called psychosexual stages.- oral , anal , phallic , latency and genital
Each stage is associated with a different part of the body that is the source of pleasure (libido). Stages one to three are the oral, anal and phallic stages. Any problems in a stage could result in a child becoming fixated or stuck at that stage of development and could have a lasting effect on personality. Fixation is caused by either frustration or overindulgence. For example, harsh potty training in the anal stage could result in anal fixation. This could lead to an anal retentive personality whereby someone is suborn and overly tidy
psychodynamic approach- the unconscious mind
An assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that the unconscious mind determines much of our behaviour. Freud said that the mind is like an iceberg and the logical, conscious part is merely the tip. Under the surface is the preconscious and the large unconscious part of the mind. The unconscious is illogical and ruled by pleasure seeking. It determines much of our behaviour and we are motivated by unconscious drives and conflicts. Included in the unconscious are ego defence mechanisms. These are psychological strategies used as protection from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts and feelings. These defence mechanisms keep disturbing or threatening material from coming up from the unconscious into conscious awareness. For example, displacement , projection and repression is an ego defence mechanism which involves banishing painful memories, such as childhood memories from psychosexual stages, into the unconscious so they are effectively forgotten. However, unconsciously, they may still affect our emotions and behaviour
Behaviourist assumption- humans are born as a blank slate
One assumption of the behaviourist approach is that babies are born as a blank slate (a ‘tabula rasa’) and that it’s our environment that shapes our behaviour. Behaviourists argue the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate. They believe that newborns are born with only a few basic primitive responses such as crying, pain and hunger. The rest of our more complex behaviour is a result of interactions with our environment and life experiences. Behaviours are a result of a learned response to a stimulus in our environment. Therefore, behaviours are not seen to be innate but solely determined by our environment. This is called environmental determinism. For example, behaviourists would explain that aggressive behaviours are learnt from a person’s environment. The Social Learning Theory would explain how aggressive behaviours are learnt through observation and imitation of role models. For example, Bandura found that children who observed an aggressive role model playing with a bobo doll modelled more physical and verbal aggression when later observed playing with the bobo doll alone. This is compared to children in the non- aggressive group who exhibited virtually no aggression towards the doll, demonstrating aggressive behaviours are in fact learnt
behaviourist approach- behaviour is learnt through classic conditioning
One assumption of the behaviourist approach is that much of human behaviour is learnt through conditioning. There are two types of conditioning: classical and operant. Classical conditioning is when an association is formed between a stimulus and a response. For example, Ivan Pavlov first demonstrated this in dogs. He did this by repeatedly pairing food (the unconditioned stimulus) with the sound of a bell (the neutral stimulus)., to which the dog salivated (unconditioned response). The dog gradually learnt after several repetitions to associate the food with the bell. Therefore, after conditioning the dog produced a new conditioned response of salivating to the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus).
In operant conditioning new behaviours are learnt through the consequences of our actions. We start to learn from an early age that new behaviours can provide either positive consequences (rewards), or negative consequences (punishments). Behaviours that are rewarded are reinforced and are more likely to be repeated in the future. For example, Skinner found that when rats were given a positive reinforcement of a food pellet for pressing a lever, the rats increased their lever-pressing behaviour. Reinforcements can either be positive (this is when something pleasant is gained) or negative (this is when the person avoids something negative from happening.)
Behaviourist approach - humans and animals learn in certain ways
Another assumption of the behaviourist approach is that the same principles/laws of learning are common to all species. Behaviourists argue that many animals are like us genetically due to evolution (e.g. same nervous system, brain et), They believe there are only quantitative differences between humans and animals e.g.brain size. Therefor they believe humans and non-human animals both behave and learn in the same way so it is appropriate to use animals in research and make generalisations about human behaviour. For example, Pavlov first discovered classical conditioning with dogs who were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell. This same process was then applied to Little Albert who was classically conditioned to have a phobia of white rats also.
Cognitive approach- computer analogy
The cognitive approach says that our mind is like a computer - the
‘computer analogy’. Therefore, the mind is compared to the hardware of a computer and the cognitive (internal) processes are our software. The brain has an input of information from the environment via our senses. We then process the data, changing it and storing it using internal processes like memory and language. We have an output in the form of recall, decisions or actions.
The cognitive approach could explain aggressive behaviour, for example, some people have faulty cognitive processing known as hostile attribution bias. This is when someone has a bias towards thinking the worst, such as if someone smiles at you (input) but you think that the person is actually thinking bad thoughts (faulty processing), the cognitive approach would suggest that such negative thoughts lead to aggressive behaviour (output)
Cognitive approach- internal mental process
Another assumption of the cognitive approach is that behaviour can be explained using the internal processes of the mind. We use the full range of internal mental processes (perception, attention, memory, language and thinking) to gather and process information. These processes all relate to each other and constantly work together to help individuals understand their environment.
We can measure internal mental processes using a technique known as introspection:
Griffiths (1994) used this technique to investigate the internal mental processes of regular
gamblers and non-gamblers. The study found that the group of regular gamblers used more irrational verbalisations of their thought processes compared to the non gamblers.
gambles - used irrational verbalisation
“ this machine likes me “ “‘I lost as I wasn’t concentating”
Cognitive approach - schemas
concept of schemas is an important assumption of the cognitive approach.
Schemas are organised pockets of information built up through experience and stored in our long-term memory. For example, our’ dog schema’ (the packet of information we have stored about dogs) might contain ‘four legs’, ‘furry”, ‘bark’, tail’ etc. Schemas are usually based on past experiences but can also be refined through further interactions with people and the world around us. Schemas can take different forms such as schemas for events (e.g. going to a restaurant or cinema) or roles (e.g. what a nurse is like).
One example of how schemas influence behaviour is the cognitive explanation of depression (Aaron Beck) which suggests that depression is caused by the negative cognitive triad which involves a person having negative schemas about themselves the world and the future
A schema
- is a cluster of facts based on previous experiences ans used to generate future expectations
Types of schemas
- event schemas -> cinema
- role schemas -> Dr
- self schemas -> personal beliefs
- social schemas -> how to act in society
Biological assumptions - evolutionary influences
The biological approach says that our behaviour is influenced by the process of evolution. The evolutionary theory has been used to explain how the mind and behaviour have changed over time as we have adapted to the demands of our environment. The concept of adaptiveness is based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
This is the idea that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s chance of survival and reproduction will be naturally selected. A person who carries these genes will be a more attractive mate so others will want to reproduce with them and the genes will be passed on to the next generation.
For example, mate selection (who we chose to form a relationship with), is one behaviour that has possibly been passed on through evolutionary influences. To maximise passing on our genes, evolutionary theory proposes that we seek to form relationships with individuals who possess certain traits which enhance successful reproduction. Men therefore tend to seek fertile women who are physically attractive (indicators of youth and health) and women tend to seek a partner who can provide resources needed for offspring to survive (eg food and shelter )
Biological approaches - localisation of brain function
Another assumption of the biological approach is that behaviour can be influenced by the localisation of brain function. This refers to the principle that certain areas of the brain are responsible for different functions - they have certain jobs or tasks to carry out. The brain has a number of different structures within it. The cerebral cortex, for instance, is the outer layer responsible for higher order cognitive functions and is divided into four regions or lobes. (Each of the four lobes has specific functions. The frontal lobes are involved in thinking and creativity and have been linked to our personalities. The parietal lobes receive sensory information such as temperature, touch and pain. The temporal lobes are responsible for much of our memory processing as well as processing auditory information (hence speech). Lastly, the occipital lobes are concerned with visual information and receive information directly from the eyes.)
For example, there are specific areas of the brain linked to aggressive behaviour. Research has found evidence that specific areas of the brain are linked to violence. One famous study of brain abnormalities in murderers (Raine et al. 1997) found for example, that compared to normal individuals, a group of murderers had reduced activity in their prefrontal cortex. Reduced activity in this part of the brain has been associated with behaviours such as impulsive behaviour and loss of control. This might offer some explanation of aggressive behaviour
Biological approaches- neurotransmitters
A key assumption of the biological approach is that behaviour is affected by neurotransmitters. Neurons are electrically excitable cells that form the basis of the central nervous system. One neuron communicates with another at the synapse (gap between neurons). The
neurotransmitter is fired along the neuron body (axon) in the form of an electrical impulse. When it reaches the synapse it is discharged from the presynaptic neuron in the form of a chemical. The neurotransmitters stimulate or inhibit receptors on the receiving neuron where they may continue to relay the message as an electrical impulse once again.
For example, certain neurotransmitters have been found to play a role in mood and behaviour including in mental health. Dopamine plays a role in reward, attention and perception. Too much dopamine has been found in people suffering from schizophrenia
The positive approach- focus on the good life
STUDENT B: The focus on ‘the good life’ talks about how we have three desirable lives (according to Seligman). Seligman proposed that the three desirable lives are the pleasant life’, ‘the good life’ and the ‘meaningful life’. The pleasant life is where happiness is pursued in relation to the past, present and future. For example, if you enjoyed your friend’s company in the past and you still enjoy spending time with your friends in the present and going out because it makes you happy, then you could plan a holiday with your friends in the future to pursue happiness. The good life is where happiness is pursued by taking part in activities which absorb you in a positive way. There are three elements of the good life; positive connections to others, positive individual traits and life regulation qualities. Positive connections to others refers to how we can form relationships with others and learn to forgive, love and be loyal. We can make spiritual connections with others. Positive individual traits refer to our own personal traits such as courage, creativity and resilience. Life regulation qualities refers to the qualities that we need in order to reach our goals; we must develop certain skills and qualities which help to maintain our resilience. These are all elements that make up the good life. The meaningful life is where happiness is pursued from living for a purpose greater than oneself.
The authenticity of goodness and excellent- the positive approach
Positive psychology believes that positive aspects of human mind and behaviour can be studied and researched scientifically because they are as ‘real’ as negative ones such as depression. Previously psychology has overlooked the authenticity of of traits such as virtue and happiness choosing instead to focus on negative traits and states.
Seligman (2002) suggests that a problem in psychological research has been the belief that traits such as happiness have been viewed as less authentic (real) than negative states e.g. anxiety.
A key idea of the positive approach is that feelings of happiness and goodness are just as natural according to the positive approach!! Therefore psychologists should be
as much.
scientifically studying these positive states of mind just
Example
For example, Salines argues that we each hour, time le sting the these are a
each person who they are.
In order to be happy and change our lives we need to understand how to develop these traits in order for an individual to achieve goodness and excellence. These will provide a buffer to protect the individual from suffering excessively when facing difficult life events .
The positive approach- acknowledgement of free will
One assumption of the positive approach is that humans are in control of their own emotions and have the free will to to adapt and change how they direct them . In contrast to other approaches in psychology. Martin seligman tells us that happiness is not determined by genes or luck. This is in contrast to other approach’s such as biological or behaviourist approach’s which are determined. Instead much of our own sense of happiness comes as a result of recognising our own strengths and virtues and making free will choices to work on developing these to make our lives better and minimise negativey .
Dinear and seligman 2002 found that students who made the free will choice to invest time in relationships with friends and family were happier . This hilights the fact we are in control of our own happiness in that we can choose to engage in activities ( such as forming strong connections to family and friends) that are known to make us happy and which alleviate feelings of low mood .
