What is interactional synchrony?
Mirroring of the same action between the mother and the child.
What did Meltzof + Moore (1977) found with interactional synchrony?
Found it in babies as young as 2 weeks.
What did Isabella et al. (1989) note with interactional synchrony?
High levels of synchrony were associated with better quality infant-mother attachment.
What is reciprocity?
One person responding to the other, involves close attention to verbal signals and facial expression.
How did Brazleton et al. (1975) describe reciprocity?
Like a dance.
Give 2 strengths of research carried out into caregiver-infant interactions
1) Uses well controlled procedures
- fine details recorded and analysed.
- babies don’t know they’re being observed so behaviour doesn’t change.
2) Potential value to society:
- Crotwell (2013) - 10 min Patient-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) improved IS in 20 low-income mothers compared to a control group.
Give 2 negatives of research carried out into caregiver-infant interactions
1) Observations don’t tell us purpose of both:
- Feldman (2012) both reciprocity and synchrony simply happen at the same time
- observable but what’s the purpose?
2) Research into this area socially sensitive:
- suggests children may be disadvantaged by particular responses; e.g. mothers returning to work restricts opportunity for IS.
From Schaffer + Emerson’s (1964) findings, when did children form attachments with fathers; and how many did?
(i) by 18 months
(ii) 75% of cases
What did Grossman (2002) note about the role of the father?
- Quality of attachment less important with father, also less important in long term development of children’s emotions.
What is considered very important to the role of the father?
The father’s play; not nurturing.
What do fathers tend to do when they’re primary caregivers?
Adopt mother-like behaviours, e.g. smiling, imitating.
How does research into the role of the father have economic implications?
- Challenges traditional views that just mothers are primary care givers.
- Men can do the job just as good as females.
Give 3 limitations in to inquiries of the role of the father?
1) Research interested in different questions:
- primary or secondary caregivers.
- cannot clearly answer what the role of the father is.
2) Evidence undermines distinct father role:
- McCallum + Golombok (2004) - children in single or same sex families don’t develop indifferently.
- father as secondary caregiver necessarily important?
3) No clear answer about fathers being primary attachment figures:
- is it based on traditional roles preventing father nurture or is it hormone based?
What are Schaffer’s four stages of attachment? Mention them in order.
1) Asocial stage: (first few weeks) - indiscriminate behaviour towards objects and humans.
2) Indiscriminate attachment: (2-7 months) - preference for humans; no one is favoured; stranger and separation anxiety not shown.
3) Specific attachment: (7 months (ish)) - stranger and separation anxiety when separated from one particular adult: those who respond to the ‘signals’.
4) Multiple attachments (around 1 year) - secondary attachment formed within a month 24% of the time.
What was the procedure of Schaffer + Emerson’s study?
- 60 Glasgow babies
- Visited at home monthly for a year and at 18 months.
- Separation anxiety measured by child’s behaviour to being left alone.
What were the findings and conclusions of Schaffer + Emerson’s study?
- 50% showed separation anxiety between 25-32 weeks.
- Attachment mostly with mother.
- Attachment = those who responded to the right signals and most interactive.
Give 2 evaluative strengths of Schaffer’s stages of attachment
1) External validity:
- in the home, natural environment to babies.
- behaviour observed by parents, thus natural: unaffected by researchers.
2) The study was longitudinal:
- high internal validity, observations and differences not due to participant variables e.g. temperament.
Give 2 evaluative weaknesses of Schaffer’s stages of attachment
1) How are multiple attachments assessed?:
- distress doesn’t necessarily mean that person is a primary figure –> behaviour between primary and secondary figures isn’t clear.
2) Timing of multiple attachments conflicting:
- Bowlby (1969) states a primary figure comes before multiple attachments.
- Van Ijzendoorn (1993) showed multiple attachment formed sooner where they are the norm: collectivist cultures.
Describe Lorenz’s procedure
- Divided 12 geese eggs, 6 saw their mother at first sight, the other 6 saw Lorenz.
- Also observed later courtship behaviours.
What were the findings and conclusions of Lorenz’s study?
- Geese followed who they saw first.
- Critical period of a few hours; after that no attachment is formed.
- Sexual imprinting occurs from a template of desirable characteristics.
Give;
(i) 1 evaluative strength of Lorenz’s study
(ii) 1 evaluative weakness of Lorenz’s study
(i) Support for imprinting:
- Guiton (1966) - found that chickens imprinted on yellow washing-up gloves and tried to mate with the as adults
= innate mechanism to attach?
(ii) Generalising from birds to humans:
- mammals different to birds e.g. mammals show more emotion to young.
Describe Harlow’s (1958) procedure
- 16 rhesus monkeys.
- (Condition 1) Plain-wire monkey with milk
- (Condition 2) Cloth covered but no milk
- Reactions to frightening situations were measured.
What were the findings and conclusions of Harlow’s study?
- Babies preferred cloth covered mothers.
- When frightened, babies went to the cloth mother.
- Monkeys suffered severe consequences in future: more aggression, killing offspring, less skill mating.
Give;
(i) 1 evaluative strength of Harlow’s study
(ii) 2 evaluative weaknesses of Harlow’s study
(i) Practical applications:
- Howe (1998) helped social workers understand risk factors in child abuse and how to prevent it.
- understand monkey attachment better too.
(ii) 1) Ethical issues:
- Monkeys similar to humans; Harlow aware of damage he was causing.
2) Generalising from monkeys to humans:
- more similar than geese, but babies babble which may influence attachment formation.
