biology > basic immunology > Flashcards

basic immunology Flashcards

(47 cards)

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1
Q

contrast a sign and a symptom

A

sign: can be observed or measured e.g. coughing/rashes/fever
symptom: can be described or felt by patient e.g. nausea/fatigue

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2
Q

define infectious diseases

A
  • transmissible diseases that can spread from one person to another
  • caused by pathogens
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3
Q

define non-infectious diseases

A
  • cannot spread from one person to another
  • not caused by pathogens
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4
Q

describe 4 ways infection disease spreads

A
  1. droplet nuclei: when someone coughs/sneezes, numerous tiny respiratory droplets containing respiratory tract secretions may hold pathogens, that someone else may breathe in and get infected
  2. direct contact: sexually transmitted infections are transmitted when a person exchanges body fluids during sexual intercourse with an infected person. diseases like hepatitis B and syphilis can be transmitted from mother to baby through breastfeeding. infectious disease can be spread when blood from infected person comes into contact with mucus membranes/bloodstream of uninfected person
  3. contaminated food/water: when food/water is not properly stored, they can be contaminated with pathogens
  4. disease vectors
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5
Q

define disease vector

A

any organism that acts as a carrier of an infectious disease between organisms of different species

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6
Q

state at least 2 preventive measures for droplet nuclei/contaminated food

A
  1. droplet nuclei: wearing of cotton masks/N95 masks/surgical masks
  2. contaminated food: practsie hygenic food preparation and storage/having good personal hygiene/maintain clean water supply/ensure proper sewage treatment
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7
Q

define host

A

organism infected by pathogen

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8
Q

describe the structure of a bacterium

A
  • prokaryotes: unicellular organism without a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
  • has single circular DNA as its genetic material
  • has peptidoglycan cell wall, small circular DNA molecules called plasmids, and one or more flagella
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9
Q

state the shape of the following bacteria forms:
1. bacillus
2. coccus
3. spirillum

A
  1. bacillus: straight, rod-shaped
  2. coccus: spherical
  3. spirillum: spiral
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10
Q

state at least 3 of 4 similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

A
  1. both are bound by cell surface membrane
  2. both have cytoplasm
  3. both have DNA as its ONLY genetic material
  4. both have ribosomes that synthesise proteins

Curious Cats DO Research

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11
Q

state at least 4 of 8 differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

A

too long here’s an annotated table

SCuMB 2R is a GM in Rapid

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12
Q

what is pneumococcal disease caused by

A

pneumococcus bacterium, Streptococcus pneumoniae

must underline the name of bacterium when writing

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13
Q

describe how pneumococcal disease is transmitted

A
  • by respiratory droplets/droplet nuclei
  • when a person inhales droplet nuclei containing Streptococcus pneumoniae and the droplet nuclei traverse the mouth/nasal passages and reach alveoli in the lungs

and

  • contaminated objects and surfaces
  • contact with ~ and subsequently touching mouth, nose or eyes
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14
Q

state signs and symptoms of pneumococcal disease

A
  • mild infections: pain, fever, swelling of affected body part (sinus, middle ear) – PFS
  • also lead to life-threatening complications: pneumonia which causes chest pain, cough, breathing difficulties, fever (which can be accompanied by nausea and headache) – PC CBF (click between frames)

pneuomonia is not ONLY caused by this bacterium (also by fungi/viruses)

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15
Q

state at least 3 ways to diagnose pneumococcal disease

A

any 3:
* blood test
* urine test
* phlegm test
* chest x-ray
* spinal tap

CP BUS

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16
Q

state at least 3/6 ways to prevent/treat pneumococcal disease

A

any 3:
* take antibiotics as prescribed
* pneumococcal vaccination
* avoid coming in close contact with people who have the disease
* if sick, cover mouth/nose with tissue when coughing/sneezing, and wear a surgical mask
* wash hands with soap and water / rub with disinfectant when you think you touched a contaminated surface
* avoid touching eyes, nose, mouth

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17
Q

define virus

A

obligate intracellular parasites that can only reproduce within host cell. they cannot multiply outside a living host cell because they do not have any cellular components or metabolic enzymes essential to carry out metabolism and synthesise proteins

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18
Q

describe two states viruses can exist in

A
  1. extracellular: metabolically intert
  2. intracellular: utilise host cell metabolism to reproduce
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19
Q

state the living and non-living characteristics of viruses

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A

living:
1. able to acquire and use energy
2. able to reproduce at a very fast rate
3. able to evolve through time and adapt to environment

EREA

non-living
1. non-cellular
2. cannot carry out own metabolism and cannot make own proteins
3. does not grow, feed, respire or excrete

NPM GREF

20
Q

what is meant by host-specfic? why are viruses host-specific?

Study These Flashcards
A

they infect specific types of organisms and specific types and ranges of cells within organisms

due to their ability to interact with only specific surface membrane proteins found on the host cell surface membrane

21
Q

describe the structure of a virus

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A
  • generally all viruses consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat (capsid)
  • the capsid and enclosed genetic material is collectively termed nucleocapsid
  • some viruses contain enzymes within capsid
  • some viruses contain membranous envelope – (function not in notes) allows to enter host cell by fusing with host membrane, does not rely entirely on capsid proteins for binding which would limit the range of cells it can infect
22
Q

describe the structure of influenza and explain how it enters the lungs

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A
  • virus that has a membranous envelope and projections made of protein
  • spike proteins allow the virus to attach onto a cell and gain entry into the host cell
  • epithelial cells lining the lungs take in the virus via endocytosis
23
Q

describe how influenza is transmitted

Study These Flashcards
A
  • droplet nuclei
  • when a person has contact with contaminated surface and subsequently touches his own nose/mouth/eyes
24
Q

state the signs and symptoms of influenza

Study These Flashcards
A
  • incubation period of about 1 day (how long it takes for symptoms to show)
  • high fever between 39 and 41°C
  • sore throat, congestion, dry cough, and headache
  • (fever and lack of excessive mucus production distinguish flu from common cold)

SH CDC HF

25
state 2 ways to diagnose influenza
* having the signs and symptoms of flu is sufficient for initial diagnosis * laboratary tests (antigen detection tests, molecular assays)
26
state at least 3 ways to prevent/treat influenza
any 3 (reserve one for first one): * **antiviral drugs** that **inhibit neuraminidase**, **blocking the release of virions from infected cells** * **antihistamines** and **pain relievers** to alleviate symptoms * **immunisation with vaccines** that contain several antigens at once - *avoid coming in close contact with people who have the disease* - *if sick, cover mouth/nose with tissue when coughing/sneezing, and wear a surgical mask* - *wash hands with soap and water / rub with disinfectant when you think you touched a contaminated surface* - *avoid touching eyes, nose, mouth* | last 4 same as pneumococcal disease ## Footnote **first one MUST know how to explain**
27
define the immune system
**interacting network of organs, cells and cell products** that provide the **body's defence against infection by pathogens**. it is also involved in fight against **malignant cells** and **rejection of transplants**
28
define immune response
mechanism used by the host to **defend itself against foreign pathogens** by triggering its immune system
29
state the scientific names of red and white blood cells
red: **erythrocytes** | white: **leukocytes**
30
where do ALL blood cells arise from?
**hematopoietic stems cells** (HSCs) found in **bone marrow**
31
what are HSCs?
stem cells that give rise to **ALL** other blood cells through **haematopoiesis**
32
describe the structure of B lymphocytes
- few/no granules - little cytoplasm - round nucleus
33
state the function of B lymphocytes
mature into either: * **Plasma B cells** that **produce and secrete antibodies** * **Memory B cells** that provide long-term **immunity**. some memory B cells will differentiate into plasma B cells in subsequent infections
34
describe the structure of neutrophils
- large, pale granules containing hydrolytic enzymes - multi-lobed nucleus
35
state the function of neutrophils
- **engulf and destroy foreign bodies via phagocytosis** - short-lived - circulate the blood and only leaves the blood at infection sites by squeezing through capillary walls | non-bolded = differences between neutrophil vs macrophage
36
describe the structure of macrophages
- few/no granules - kidney-bean shaped nucleus
37
state the function of macrophages
- **engulf and destroy foreign bodies via phagocytosis** - long lifespan - move freely and found in almost all organs and tissues | non-bolded = differences between neutrophil vs macrophage
38
sketch: 1. lymphocyte 2. neutrophil 3. macrophage
[answer](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1JfaDzuzpz7ONEG_jq3hKh7LYI6hCsBrY/view?usp=sharing) don't need the dots (granules)
39
define a vaccine
contains an agent that **resembles a pathogen** and prevents infectious disease by **stimulating lymphocytes to quickly produce antibodies when a pathogen invades**
40
define antigen
**surface membrane proteins** found on pathogens which leukocytes recognise. when it binds to specific receptors found on leukocytes' cell surface membrane, the white blood cell will respond by secreting antibodies or killing the bacteria via phagocytosis
41
define antibody
**protein** secreted by lymphocytes **into the bloodstream** that bind to specific antigens present on pathogens, either **killing the bacteria directly** or **marking them for destruction by macrophages and neutrophils**
42
describe the mode of action of vaccines
1. a vaccine, **containing an agent that resembles a pathogen**, enters the body 2. the **antigen** binds to **receptor** of a **lymphocyte** that is *complementary to the 3 dimensional shape* of antigen 3. causes lymphocytes to **divide rapidly** and **differentiate** into **plasma B cells or memory B cells** 4. plasma B cells **produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies into bloodstream** 5. the antibodies bind to specific antigens present on pathogens, either **killing the bacteria directly** or **marking them for destruction by macrophages and neutrophils** *(definition of antibody)* 6. memory B cells **remain in the body** and can **rapidly divide and differentiate into MORE plasma B cells** during future infections by the SAME pathogen, hence antibodies are **produced quickly** to kill the pathogen when it enters the body **BEFORE it can reproduce and cause symptoms**, and this long-lasting protection is called **immunity**
43
describe the mode of action of antibiotics (at least 3 ways)
any 3: 1. **inhibit the synthesis of peptidoglycan bacterial cell wall**, causing the cell to **expand, burst and die** when excessive water enters cell by osmosis 2. **breaking up bacterial cell surface membrane** so that the cell is no longer protected from its environment 3. **bind** to **bacterial 70s ribosomes**, preventing them from synthesising proteins and hence inhibiting growth 4. **inhibit the enzyme needed to synthesise folic acid**, thereby inhibiting growth of cell 5. **inhibit the enzymes needed for replication of DNA** in bacterial cells, preventing them from dividing via binary fission and hence stopping reproduction
44
define antibiotic
**drug** used to treat bacterial infections and are naturally made by microorganisms to kill or inhibit the growth of bateria and fungi
45
explain how antibiotic-resistant bacteria arise
* when a bacteria colony is exposed to **mutagenic agents**, these may cause **mutations** and changes to their genetic material that allow some bacterial cells to **produce proteins that confer antibiotic resistance** * when the bacteria colony is exposed to antibiotic, the bacteria sensitive to antibiotic will be killed, but **those that are resistant survive** * if amount of antibiotic taken is insufficient to kill **ALL** the bacteria, resistant bacteria will **multiply, passing down their genes for antibiotic resistance to the next generation**, resulting in more resistant bacteria * further prescription of this antibiotic no longer kill the bacteria, so a different or more powerful antibiotic must be used instead
46
contrast a macrophage and a neutrophil (function-wise)
neutrophil - short-lived - circulate the blood and only leave the blood at infection sites by squeezing through capillary wall macrophage - long lifespan - move freely and found in almost all tissues and organs
47
# draw a bacterial cell
[answer](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-2K7eruGAo83D8XHMynk7KfrKlHej0Ro/view?usp=sharing)
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