1
Q
What is metabolism essential for?
A
Life
Metabolism prevents spontaneous decay into thermodynamic equilibrium.
2
Q
True or false: Without metabolism, death would inevitably happen.
A
TRUE
Metabolism is crucial for energy exchange with the environment.
3
Q
What is the net direct ATP yield from glycolysis?
A
2 molecules
Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate, conserving energy.
4
Q
Name the major pathways of metabolism.
A
- Glycolysis
- Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
- Nutrient metabolism
Understanding these pathways is essential for grasping metabolic processes.
5
Q
What does the TCA cycle also known as?
A
Citric acid cycle and Krebs’ cycle
It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
6
Q
What are the reducing equivalents produced in one turnover of the TCA cycle?
A
- 3 NADH
- 1 FADH2
These equivalents are donated to the mitochondrial respiratory chain.
7
Q
What drives ATP synthesis in mitochondria?
A
Protonmotive force
PMF is established through electron transfer reactions.
8
Q
What does the first law of thermodynamics state?
A
Energy can’t be made or destroyed
This principle underlies all metabolic processes.
9
Q
What is the second law of thermodynamics about?
A
Entropy of a system and its surroundings increases
Entropy is a measure of disorder.
10
Q
Define exergonic reactions.
A
- Thermodynamically favorable
- Moves forwards towards equilibrium
- Occurs spontaneously
These reactions release energy.
11
Q
Define endergonic reactions.
A
- Thermodynamically unfavorable
- Moves backwards towards equilibrium
- Requires input of energy
These reactions absorb energy.
12
Q
What is Gibbs energy a function of?
A
Displacement from equilibrium
Change in Gibbs energy predicts the likelihood of a reaction.
13
Q
What does ATP hydrolysis associate with?
A
Negative Gibbs energy
This allows ATP hydrolysis to drive other reactions.
14
Q
What is the main use of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)?
A
Analytical
HPLC utilizes small particle sizes for high resolution.
15
Q
What is SDS-PAGE used for?
A
Denaturing proteins
It disrupts protein structures and gives proteins a net negative charge.
16
Q
What is the purpose of isoelectric focusing?
A
To separate proteins based on their net charge
It uses a pH gradient formed in a gel.
17
Q
What is the distribution coefficient in chromatography?
A
Describes how an analyte distributes between two immiscible phases
It is crucial for the separation process.
18
Q
What is the retention factor (Rf) in Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)?
A
Distance migrated over total distance covered by solvent
Rf values are unique to each compound.
19
Q
What are ampholytes used for in isoelectric focusing?
A
To form a pH gradient
They help in separating proteins based on their isoelectric points.
20
Q
What is the role of enzymes in metabolic networks?
A
Biocatalysts for metabolic control and regulation
Enzymes are crucial for facilitating biochemical reactions.
21
Q
What is the biomedical relevance of enzymology?
A
- Drug design
- Disease diagnosis
Enzymes serve as therapeutic targets and biomarkers.
22
Q
What is the first step in the Michaelis-Menten kinetics process?
A
Reversible formation of enzyme substrate complex
This step is fast compared to the second step.
23
Q
What does Vmax represent in enzyme kinetics?
A
Velocity at saturating substrate levels
Vmax depends on the amount of enzyme present.
24
Q
What is the operational meaning of Km?
A
Intrinsic enzyme property reflecting substrate affinity
Km is the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half-maximal.
25
Name the **three types** of enzyme inhibition.
* Competitive inhibition
* Uncompetitive inhibition
* Mixed inhibition
## Footnote
Each type affects enzyme kinetics differently.
26
True or false: **Competitive inhibitors** exclusively increase the Km of an enzyme.
TRUE
## Footnote
Mixed inhibitors increase Km and lower Vmax.
27
What is the role of **AMP-activated kinase (AMPK)**?
Master regulator of energy metabolism
## Footnote
It is involved in allosteric regulation.
28
What is **product inhibition** in enzymology?
Inhibition of enzyme activity by its own product
## Footnote
An example is hexokinase (HK).
29
What does **Metabolic Control Analysis (MCA)** quantify?
The effect of small changes in enzyme activity on flux or intermediate concentration
## Footnote
MCA helps understand metabolic regulation.
30
What are the **three mechanisms** of metabolic regulation?
* Allosteric regulation
* Product inhibition
* Isozyme expression
## Footnote
These mechanisms help control metabolic pathways.
31
What is the significance of **isozyme expression**?
Regulates reaction velocity based on tissue-specific needs
## Footnote
Different isozymes can have different kinetic properties.
32
What are the **physiological roles** of carbohydrates?
* Metabolic fuels
* Energy stores
* Structural and regulatory roles
## Footnote
Carbohydrates are essential for various biological functions.
33
What is the classification criterion for carbohydrates?
Aldehyde or ketone group and number of carbon atoms
## Footnote
Aldoses have an aldehyde group, ketoses have a ketone group.
34
What defines a **reducing sugar**?
Contains an available carbonyl group that can reduce mild oxidizing agents
## Footnote
Examples include glucose.
35
What is the structure of **glycogen**?
A glucose polymer with large networks held together by glycosidic bonds
## Footnote
Glycogen serves as an energy reserve in animals.
36
What are the **general characteristics** of lipids?
* Biological origin
* Soluble in organic solvents
* Sparingly soluble in water
## Footnote
Lipids play various roles in metabolism and structure.
37
What are the **physiological roles** of lipids?
* Metabolic fuels
* Energy reserves
* Structural and regulatory roles
## Footnote
Lipids are crucial for cellular functions.
38
What is the difference between **saturated** and **unsaturated fatty acids**?
* Saturated: solid at room temperature
* Unsaturated: fluid at room temperature
## Footnote
The degree of saturation affects the physical properties of fats.
39
What is the **function** of phosphoglycerides?
Essential components of biological membranes
## Footnote
They are amphipathic molecules that form bilayers.
40
What happens when **single-tailed phosphoglycerides** are mixed in aqueous solutions?
They form micelles
## Footnote
This aggregation helps shield hydrophobic parts from water.
41
What is the **importance of fatty acids** in lipid metabolism?
Key bioenergetic fuels and can be linked to glycerol
## Footnote
Fatty acids are chemically active due to their carboxylic acid group.
42
What are the **pathological effects** of high circulating lipid levels?
* Lipotoxic effects on liver, muscle, and pancreatic beta cells
* High cholesterol levels leading to cardiovascular disease
## Footnote
These conditions are associated with metabolic diseases.
43
What are the **two important types** of lipids?
* Triacylglycerols (storage)
* Phosphoglycerides (membranes)
## Footnote
Lipids are water-insoluble, amphipathic molecules.
44
The melting point of **fatty acids** is a function of what?
The degree of saturation (i.e. number of double bonds)
## Footnote
Saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than unsaturated ones.
45
When immersed in aqueous solutions, single-tailed phosphoglycerides form _______ and two-tailed phosphoglycerides form _______.
micelles; molecular bilayers
## Footnote
This behavior is crucial for the formation of biological membranes.
46
What is the role of **lipoproteins** in the body?
Transport lipids through blood
## Footnote
Insoluble lipids form non-covalent complexes with soluble proteins to shield them from the aqueous environment.
47
List the **good functions** of cholesterol.
* Membrane component
* Precursor of bile salts
* Precursor of steroid hormones
## Footnote
Cholesterol is a major component of animal plasma membranes.
48
What are the **bad effects** of excess cholesterol?
* Atherosclerosis
* Contributes to cardiovascular disease
## Footnote
Public health is severely affected by high cholesterol levels.
49
What are the **five key human plasma lipoproteins** classified according to their density?
* Chylomicron
* VLDL
* IDL
* LDL
* HDL
## Footnote
Each lipoprotein has a specific role in lipid transport.
50
True or false: **LDL** is considered the 'good' cholesterol.
FALSE
## Footnote
LDL is seen as 'bad' because it moves cholesterol to peripheral organs.
51
What are the **functions of proteins**?
* Catalysis (enzymes)
* Metabolic control (hormones)
* Transport (hemoglobin)
* Structure (elastin)
* Defence (antibodies)
## Footnote
The function of a protein depends on its chemical structure and molecular conformation.
52
Define **polypeptide**.
Linear heteropolymer composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
## Footnote
A protein can consist of one or more polypeptides.
53
What are the **basic building blocks** of proteins?
* Amino acids
## Footnote
All proteins are made from the same set of 20 standard amino acids.
54
What is the **primary structure** of a protein?
Amino acid sequence (linear)
## Footnote
The sequence is determined by the nucleotide bases in the gene encoding the protein.
55
What stabilizes the **secondary structure** of proteins?
Noncovalent forces
## Footnote
These include hydrogen bonds, electrostatic forces, and hydrophobic interactions.
56
What is the **tertiary structure** of a protein?
Overall conformation (3D)
## Footnote
It is biologically active and maintained by noncovalent bonds.
57
What is the role of **domains** in proteins?
Clear subcomponents of tertiary structure
## Footnote
Domains can have specific functions within the protein.
58
What is the **quaternary structure** of a protein?
Multiple polypeptides (subunits)
## Footnote
This structure is formed when two or more polypeptide chains assemble.
59
What are the **two types** of amino acids based on their side chains?
* Polar
* Non-polar
## Footnote
Amino acids can be further classified into ionizable and non-ionizable based on their side chains.
60
What is the difference between **D- and L-amino acids**?
D-amino acids are rare; L-amino acids are found in proteins
## Footnote
Enzymes can distinguish between the two types.
61
What is the **function of apolipoproteins**?
Transfer between lipoproteins
## Footnote
They play a role in lipid transport and metabolism.
62
What is the **role of acetyl CoA** in metabolism?
Synthesis of lipids and ketone bodies
## Footnote
Acetyl CoA is produced from pyruvate in mitochondria.
63
What is the process of **deamination**?
Removal of a-amino group from amino acids
## Footnote
This is necessary before the carbon skeleton can be converted into metabolic intermediates.
64
The conversion of malate to pyruvate involves which type of reaction that generates **NADPH**?
Decarboxylation reaction
## Footnote
This reaction is important for **fatty acid synthesis**.
65
What is the first step in **amino acid degradation**?
Removal of a-amino group
## Footnote
This is followed by the conversion of the resulting carbon skeleton into metabolic intermediates.
66
What is the role of **transamination** in amino acid metabolism?
Removes a-amino group using an acceptor, typically a-ketoglutarate
## Footnote
This process forms glutamate and the corresponding a-keto acid.
67
What is the product of oxidative deamination of **glutamate**?
Ammonia
## Footnote
This process is catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase.
68
What coenzyme is associated with **transaminases**?
Pyridoxal phosphate
## Footnote
This coenzyme is derived from vitamin B6.
69
The **urea cycle** is linked to which metabolic cycle?
TCA cycle
## Footnote
Fumarate produced in the urea cycle can enter directly into the citric acid cycle.
70
What condition is characterized by an increase in ammonia levels in the blood?
Hyperammonemia
## Footnote
This condition can be caused by defects in enzymes of the urea cycle.
71
What is the dual purpose of **proteolysis**?
* Quality control
* Regulation
## Footnote
It removes misfolded or damaged proteins and meets metabolic demands.
72
What activates **ubiquitin** for protein degradation?
E1 activating enzyme using ATP
## Footnote
This process involves a series of enzyme transfers leading to poly-ubiquitination.
73
What is the role of **signal peptides** in protein targeting?
Directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum
## Footnote
Signal peptides consist of 10-15 hydrophobic amino acids.
74
Where are **secretory proteins** synthesized?
Bound ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
## Footnote
These proteins are translocated into the RER lumen during synthesis.
75
What is the function of **mannose 6-phosphate** in lysosomal protein targeting?
Targets lysosomal proteins to their correct destination
## Footnote
It is recognized by mannose 6-phosphate receptor proteins in the Golgi.
76
What is the retention signal for soluble proteins in the lumen of the **RER**?
Lys-Asp-Glu-Leu at C terminus
## Footnote
This signal retains proteins in the RER and prevents them from moving to the Golgi.
77
What are the three main processes involved in **glucose catabolism**?
* Glycolysis
* TCA cycle
* Oxidative phosphorylation
## Footnote
These processes yield ATP and are examples of catabolic pathways.
78
What enzyme breaks down **sucrose** into glucose and fructose?
Sucrase
## Footnote
Sucrose is a type of table sugar.
79
What are the gastrointestinal products of carbohydrate digestion?
* Glucose
* Fructose
* Galactose
## Footnote
These serve as cellular fuels.
80
What is the metabolic fate of fructose in the **fed state**?
Metabolized by the liver to glycogen or triacylglycerol
## Footnote
This process is not dependent on insulin.
81
What condition is caused by the accumulation of **fructose-1-phosphate** in the liver?
Hereditary fructose intolerance
## Footnote
This leads to impaired glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
82
What pathway is involved in **galactose metabolism**?
Leloir pathway
## Footnote
This pathway involves four enzymes and converts galactose to glucose-6-phosphate.
83
What are the three stages of **fatty acid catabolism**?
* Activation to fatty acyl-CoA
* Transport into mitochondria
* Mitochondrial oxidation
## Footnote
Each stage is crucial for the breakdown of fatty acids.
84
What drives the reaction for **fatty acid activation**?
Product hydrolysis
## Footnote
This reaction is catalyzed by acyl-CoA synthetase.
85
What is the process of **mitochondrial beta oxidation**?
Repeated iteration of 4 reaction steps yielding shorter fatty acyl-CoA
## Footnote
This process generates acetyl-CoA, FADH2, and NADH.
86
What is the role of **NADH** and **FADH2** in the respiratory chain?
Donate electrons to the mitochondrial respiratory chain
## Footnote
This process is essential for ATP production.
87
What are the products of **amino acid catabolism**?
* TCA cycle intermediates
* Glucose
* Fatty acids
## Footnote
Glucogenic amino acids can be metabolized to glucose, while ketogenic amino acids can be converted to fatty acids.
88
What is the significance of **fumarate** in relation to the TCA cycle?
It is produced by the urea cycle and is also a TCA cycle intermediate
## Footnote
Fumarate is involved in generating aspartate.
89
What is the net ATP yield from **glycolysis**?
2 ATP and 2 NADH
## Footnote
Glycolytic reactions occur in the cytoplasm.
90
Where do **TCA cycle reactions** take place?
Mitochondrial matrix
## Footnote
This cycle generates CO2, GTP, NADH, ATP, and carbon skeletons.
91
What is the role of **oxidative phosphorylation**?
Couples oxidation fuel to ATP synthesis
## Footnote
This process consumes oxygen and generates a protonmotive force.
92
What happens to **NADH** when oxygen is limited?
It is re-oxidised by reducing pyruvate to lactate
## Footnote
This process allows glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions.
93
What are the **two ways** NADH can be re-oxidised in the mitochondria?
* Malate/aspartate shuttle
* Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle
## Footnote
Each shuttle has different energetic costs associated with them.
94
The **pyruvate dehydrogenase complex** catalyses which reaction?
Decarboxylation of pyruvate
## Footnote
This reaction occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
95
How many **NADH** are yielded from pyruvate decarboxylation?
1 NADH
## Footnote
This NADH is produced before entering the TCA cycle.
96
What does a single **TCA cycle turnover** yield?
* 1 ATP
* 3 NADH
* 1 FADH2
## Footnote
These reducing equivalents are used in the mitochondrial respiratory chain.
97
What is the role of **FADH2** in the respiratory chain?
It is a prosthetic group of succinate dehydrogenase
## Footnote
FADH2 oxidation is coupled to the reduction of ubiquinone.
98
What is the **protonmotive force (PMF)** used for?
* ATP synthesis
* ADP-ATP exchange
* Pi import
## Footnote
PMF is established by the energy liberated during electron transfer reactions.
99
What is the **P/O ratio**?
ATP made per oxygen atom consumed
## Footnote
This ratio is critical for calculating cellular energy budgets.
100
True or false: The **glycerol phosphate shuttle** is more energetically expensive than the malate-aspartate shuttle.
FALSE
## Footnote
The malate-aspartate shuttle is less expensive and conserves energy more efficiently.
101
What is the energetic cost of **ATP/ADP exchange** and Pi transport?
0.27 molecules ATP per ATP or GTP made
## Footnote
This cost arises from the exchange processes involved.
102
What are the **three stages** of fatty acid oxidation?
* Activation
* Beta oxidation
* Mitochondrial processing
## Footnote
Each stage plays a crucial role in energy liberation.
103
What is the **energetic cost** of palmitate activation?
2 ATP
## Footnote
This activation is necessary before beta oxidation can occur.
104
How does **glycogen** compare to fat in terms of mobilization speed?
Glycogen can be mobilised faster than fat
## Footnote
This allows for rapid adjustments of blood glucose levels.
105
What is the **molecular structure** of glycogen?
Branched polymeric molecule known as amylopectin
## Footnote
Its structure allows for efficient storage and mobilization of glucose.
106
What enzyme catalyses the **phosphorolysis reaction** in glycogen catabolism?
Glycogen phosphorylase
## Footnote
This enzyme cleaves glycosidic bonds at the non-reducing termini of glycogen.
107
What is the product of **glycogenolysis**?
Phosphorylated glucose
## Footnote
This glucose can yield ATP during glycolytic breakdown.
108
What is the role of **uncoupling proteins (UCPs)**?
Mediating physiological proton leak
## Footnote
UCP1 is specifically involved in non-shivering thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue.
109
What is the significance of **UCP2** in pancreatic beta cells?
Regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion
## Footnote
UCP2 attenuates glucose-induced signals.
110
What enzyme catalyzes the **cleavage of glycosidic bonds** at the non-reducing termini of glycogen molecules?
Glycogen phosphorylase
## Footnote
Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes phosphorolysis, yielding phosphorylated glucose.
111
Phosphorolysis is analogous to hydrolysis but uses _______ instead of H2O.
Pi
## Footnote
This process yields phosphorylated glucose, which can generate ATP during glycolysis.
112
What are the two main enzymes involved in **glycogenolysis**?
* Glycogen phosphorylase
* Glycogen debranching enzyme
## Footnote
Glycogen debranching enzyme has dual catalytic activity and controls the breakdown rate.
113
What does the **glycogen debranching enzyme** do?
* Transfers limited glucan branches
* Hydrolyzes remaining glucan to glucose
## Footnote
This increases the rate of glycogen breakdown.
114
Glycogen synthesis relies on _______ enzymes that differ from those responsible for glycogenolysis.
3
## Footnote
This distinction allows for separate regulation of glycogen metabolism.
115
What are the **main organs** involved in glycogen metabolism?
* Liver
* Muscle
## Footnote
Liver stores glycogen and mobilizes it during fasting, while muscle uses glycogen during emergencies.
116
In the **fed state**, what triggers glycogen synthesis?
Insulin
## Footnote
Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis and inhibits glycogen breakdown.
117
True or false: **Simultaneous glycogen synthesis and breakdown** leads to a futile cycle that wastes energy.
TRUE
## Footnote
These processes must be tightly regulated to prevent energy waste.
118
What is the **Cori cycle**?
A mechanism that prevents lactic acidosis by processing lactate in the liver
## Footnote
Erythrocytes rely on this cycle as they perform anaerobic glycolysis.
119
What is the energy requirement for **gluconeogenesis**?
6 ATP equivalents
## Footnote
This energy is generated via oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS).
120
What are the **hormonal regulators** of glycogen metabolism in the liver during fasting?
* Epinephrine
* Glucagon
## Footnote
These hormones stimulate glycogen breakdown.
121
What is **Type 1 storage disease** also known as?
Von Gierke disease
## Footnote
It is caused by a deficiency of glucose 6-phosphatase, leading to excess glycogen in the liver.
122
What are the **main steps** of lipid biosynthesis?
* Pentose phosphate pathway
* Fatty acid biosynthesis
* Glyceroneogenesis
* Regulation
## Footnote
These processes are essential for lipid metabolism.
123
What is the role of **NADPH** in lipid biosynthesis?
Provides reducing power
## Footnote
NADPH is crucial for energy-demanding processes and reductive biosynthesis.
124
What happens to glucose when **glycogen stores are filled**?
* No glycolysis
* No glycogen synthesis
* Accumulation of glucose-6-phosphate
## Footnote
This leads to processing via the pentose phosphate pathway.
125
What is the **pentose phosphate pathway** also known as?
Hexose monophosphate shunt
## Footnote
It provides a bypass for glucose-6-phosphate when glycolysis is inhibited.
126
What is the **key regulatory step** in fatty acid synthesis?
Carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA
## Footnote
This step is catalyzed by acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC).
127
What is the **final product** of palmitate synthesis?
Palmitate
## Footnote
The process involves the addition of 2 carbon units from malonyl-CoA.
128
What is the **triacylglycerol cycle**?
Dynamic storage process of triacylglycerol
## Footnote
It involves continuous breakdown and resynthesis during starvation.
129
What does **insulin** stimulate in lipid metabolism?
* Glucose uptake
* Glycogenesis
* Fatty acid synthesis
## Footnote
Insulin is an anabolic hormone that inhibits TAG hydrolysis and gluconeogenesis.
130
What is the **thermodynamic necessity** for separate paths in biosynthesis and breakdown?
Allows independent anabolic and catabolic regulation
## Footnote
This separation is crucial for efficient metabolism.
131
What is the **origin of the carbon atoms** of cholesterol?
All carbon atoms of cholesterol are derived from acetate
## Footnote
This can be deduced from tracer experiments with acetate labelled in the methyl carbon or the carboxyl carbon.
132
List the **four main steps** in cholesterol biosynthesis.
* Formation of mevalonate from acetate
* Conversion of mevalonate to two activated isoprenes
* Condensation of six activated isoprenes to form squalene
* Conversion of squalene to the four-ring steroid nucleus
## Footnote
These steps outline the biochemical pathway for synthesizing cholesterol.
133
What is the role of **HMG-CoA reductase** in cholesterol biosynthesis?
Formation of mevalonate from acetyl-CoA
## Footnote
This is the stage targeted therapeutically to prevent hypercholesterolemia.
134
True or false: **Insulin** has a similar effect on cholesterol metabolism as it does on acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
TRUE
## Footnote
Insulin regulates cholesterol metabolism, similar to its regulation of fatty acid synthesis.
135
What are the **key components** of cholesterol transport?
* Lipoproteins are crucial for cholesterol transport
* Lipoproteins are taken up by the liver when hepatic cholesterol concentration is low
* Receptor-mediated endocytosis
## Footnote
These components are essential for maintaining cholesterol homeostasis in the body.
136
What is the significance of **LDL** in cholesterol uptake?
Low hepatic cholesterol levels stimulate expression of LDL receptors on the plasma membrane
## Footnote
This mechanism is crucial for regulating cholesterol levels in the liver.
137
Cholesterol is used as a precursor molecule to make other biologically important molecules. Name two examples.
* Bile salts
* Steroid hormones
## Footnote
Cholesterol serves as a building block for these essential compounds.
138
What happens to **bile salts** that are not recycled?
1g/day escapes recycling and is broken down by microbes
## Footnote
This highlights the importance of bile salt recycling in cholesterol metabolism.
139
What are the **risk factors** for hypercholesterolemia?
* Genetic hypercholesterolemia manifests rapidly
* Diet-related hypercholesterolemia develops slowly
## Footnote
Understanding these risk factors is essential for prevention and management.
140
What are the **two main types** of diabetes mellitus?
* Type 1 diabetes
* Type 2 diabetes
## Footnote
Each type has distinct causes and management strategies.
141
What characterizes **Type 1 diabetes**?
* Autoimmune attack
* Managed with insulin
* Risk mainly genetic
## Footnote
This type of diabetes typically develops in childhood or adolescence.
142
What characterizes **Type 2 diabetes**?
* Metabolic disorder
* Pharmacological therapy
* Risk related to lifestyle and genetics
## Footnote
This type is more common and often associated with obesity.
143
What is the **metabolic syndrome**?
A cluster of medical disorders that collectively increase the risk of developing T2D and cardiovascular disease
## Footnote
Insulin resistance is a key feature of this syndrome.
144
What is the role of **Kir6.2** in pancreatic beta cells?
Part of the KATP channel
## Footnote
This channel plays a crucial role in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion.
145
What is the effect of **UCP2** on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion?
UCP2 lowers the efficiency of coupling glucose oxidation and ATP synthesis
## Footnote
This impairment can affect insulin secretion in beta cells.
146
What are the two classes of **anti-diabetic drugs**?
* Sensitisers
* Secretagogues
## Footnote
Sensitisers improve insulin sensitivity, while secretagogues enhance insulin secretion.
147
What is the impact of a **modern western lifestyle** on diabetes risk?
Surplus energy intake and insufficient energy expenditure
## Footnote
This lifestyle contributes to the development of Type 2 diabetes.
003
flashcards
Decks in class (1)
# Cards
