Bio 190 > Bio Test > Flashcards

Bio Test Flashcards

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1
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

Unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle. They are the simplest cells and include the Domains, Bacteria and Archaea.

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2
Q

What are eukaryotes?

A

Cells that house their DNA in a nucleus and contain other membrane-bound organelles. This includes the Kingdoms, Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protists, and Algae.

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3
Q

What is the plasma (cell) membrane?

A

A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. All cells have a cell membrane.

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4
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

The organelle that houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Only found in Eukaryotes.

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5
Q

What is the nuclear envelope?

A

A double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus. It contains pores that allow passage in and out of the nucleus.

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6
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA.

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7
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

An area within the nucleus involved in the production of ribosomes.

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8
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

The entire region between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope, comprised of organelles suspended in the cytosol.

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9
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. They are found free in the cytosol or bound to the rough ER.

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10
Q

What are mitochondria?

A

Organelles responsible for making the most adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule.

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11
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

A specialized metabolic compartment bound by a single membrane. It contains hydrogen peroxide, oxidizes fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxifies many poisons.

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12
Q

What are vesicles?

A

Small, membrane-bound sacs that function in cellular storage and transport; their membrane is capable of fusing with the plasma membrane and the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Smaller than vacuoles.

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13
Q

What are vacuoles?

A

Membrane-bound sacs for storage and transport, larger than vesicles, with enzymes for breaking down macromolecules.

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14
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

Network of protein fibers maintaining cell shape, securing organelles, enabling movement within the cell, and facilitating cell movement in multicellular organisms.

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15
Q

What are microfilaments?

A

Narrowest protein fibers in the cytoskeleton, with a diameter of about 7 nm, composed of actin, involved in cellular movement and providing cell rigidity.

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16
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A

Protein fibers with a diameter of 8 to 10 nm, providing structural support, anchoring organelles, and maintaining cell shape.

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17
Q

What are flagella?

A

Long, hair-like structures enabling cell movement, with a 9 + 2 microtubule arrangement.

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18
Q

What are cilia?

A

Short, hair-like structures moving entire cells or substances along the cell’s surface, with a 9 + 2 microtubule arrangement.

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19
Q

What is a centrosome?

A

Microtubule-organizing center in animal cells containing a pair of centrioles, aiding in chromosome separation during cell division.

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20
Q

What is the cell wall?

A

Rigid structure external to the plasma membrane providing protection, support, and shape. Found in plants, fungi, algae, bacteria, and archaea.

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21
Q

What are chloroplasts?

A

Plant cell organelles conducting photosynthesis to produce glucose and oxygen using carbon dioxide, water, and light energy.

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22
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

Group of membranes and organelles that modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins.

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23
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?

A

Series of interconnected membranous structures within eukaryotic cells that collectively synthesize and modify proteins, and synthesize lipids.

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24
Q

What are intercellular junctions?

A

Structures between cells that allow cell communication via direct contact.

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25
What are plasmodesmata?
Cytoplasmic channels through cell walls connecting the cytoplasms of adjacent cells, allowing the transport of materials between cells.
26
What are tight junctions?
Protein adherence that creates a firm seal between two adjacent animal cells.
27
What are desmosomes?
Spot weld-like structures connecting adjacent animal cells, formed when cadherins in the plasma membrane attach to intermediate filaments.
28
What are gap junctions?
Channels between animal cells enabling communication and transport of ions, nutrients, and low molecular weight substances between cells.
29
What is the central vacuole?
Large plant cell organelle that regulates the cell's storage compartment, holds water, and plays a significant role in cell growth.
30
What is chlorophyll?
Green pigment that absorbs light energy, used in photosynthesis.
31
What is chromatin?
Protein-DNA complex that serves as the chromosomes' building material.
32
What is cytosol?
The cytoplasm's gel-like material in which cell structures are suspended. Contains enzymes and nutrients.
33
What is the extracellular matrix?
Material secreted from animal or fungal cells that provides mechanical protection and anchoring for the cells in the tissue.
34
What is the Golgi apparatus?
Eukaryotic organelle comprised of a series of stacked membranes that sort, tag, and package lipids and proteins for distribution.
35
What is a lysosome?
Organelle in an animal cell that functions as the cell's digestive structure; it contains chemicals and enzymes that breakdown proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles.
36
What is a microtubule?
The cytoskeleton system's widest fiber; it helps the cell resist compression, provides a track along which vesicles move through the cell, and is the structural element of centrioles, flagella, and cilia.
37
What is an organelle?
Compartment or sac within a cell.
38
What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?
Region of the endoplasmic reticulum that is studded with ribosomes and engages in protein modification and phospholipid synthesis.
39
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?
Region of the endoplasmic reticulum that has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface and synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones.
40
What is the cell theory?
A biological concept that states that one or more cells comprise all organisms; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing cells.
41
What is matter?
Substance with mass and occupies space.
42
What are elements?
Unique forms of matter with specific properties.
43
What are isotopes?
Forms of an element with different neutron numbers and the same number of protons.
44
What does atomic number determine?
An element's identity based on the number of protons in the nucleus.
45
What is mass number/atomic mass?
Total protons and neutrons in an atom.
46
What is the Bohr model?
Diagram displaying the electron arrangement in electron shells surrounding the nucleus.
47
What is the valence shell?
The outermost electron shell; these electrons determine chemical reactivity.
48
What are chemical bonds?
Formed between atoms combining to form molecules.
49
What are reactants?
Substances at the start of a chemical reaction.
50
What are products?
Substances at the end of a chemical reaction.
51
What are compounds?
Molecules with more than one element.
52
What are radioisotopes?
Unstable isotopes emitting high-energy particles.
53
What are cations?
Positively charged ions; loss of an electron.
54
What are anions?
Negatively charged ions; gain an electron.
55
What are covalent bonds?
Sharing of valence electrons between atoms; stronger than ionic bonds; can be polar & nonpolar.
56
What are irreversible reactions?
Chemical reactions proceeding in one direction.
57
What are reversible reactions?
Chemical reactions that can go in either direction.
58
What is the nucleus?
Center of an atom containing protons and neutrons.
59
What are electrons?
Negatively charged subatomic particles.
60
What are protons?
Positively charged subatomic particles.
61
What are neutrons?
Uncharged subatomic particles.
62
What are electron shells/orbitals?
Regions around the nucleus holding electrons.
63
What is the octet rule?
Atoms are stable with 8 electrons in the valence shell.
64
What is the implication of the octet rule?
Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to have a full outer shell.
65
What are inert elements?
Element with a complete outer electron shell.
66
What is equilibrium?
State where reactants and products are in balance.
67
What are ions?
Atoms with a net charge due to gained or lost electrons.
68
What is electron transfer?
Movement of electrons from one element to another.
69
What are ionic bonds?
Bonds between ions with opposite charges.
70
What are polar covalent bonds?
Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms; one is more electronegative than the other.
71
What are nonpolar covalent bonds?
Equal sharing of electrons between atoms; both atoms are equally electronegative.
72
What are hydrogen bonds?
Weak interactions between a hydrogen within a polar covalent molecule and electronegative elements.
73
What are Van der Waals interactions?
Weak attractions between molecules due to electron density fluctuations.
74
What is electronegativity?
Atom's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
75
What are hydrophilic compounds?
Compounds that have charges.
76
What are hydrophobic compounds?
Compounds that have no charges.
77
What is an acid?
Any substance that dissociates in water to increase the [H+].
78
What is a base?
Substance that combines with H+ dissolved in water; lowers the [H+] or increases the relative amount of [OH-].
79
What are buffers?
Substances that resist changes in pH.
80
What is cohesion?
Intermolecular forces between water molecules caused by the polar nature of water; helps create surface tension.
81
What is adhesion?
Attraction between water molecules and other molecules.
82
What is heat of vaporization?
The amount of energy required to convert liquid into gas.
83
Why do the hydrogen and oxygen within water molecules form polar covalent bonds?
Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, generating a partial negative charge near the oxygen atoms.
84
What is evolution?
Study of how life changes over generations. The change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations.
85
What is a population?
Group of individuals of the same species.
86
What is microevolution?
Changes within a biological population that are easily observable over a short time period.
87
What is macroevolution?
Large-scale changes resulting in new species.
88
What is a theory in biology?
Body of accepted principles supported by evidence.
89
What is common descent?
The theory that all species arose from a single common ancestor.
90
What is heritability?
The passage of traits, as genes, from parent to offspring.
91
What is overproduction?
More individuals are born than cannot be supported by the environment.
92
What is competition in the context of evolution?
Struggle for limited resources among individuals.
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What is variation?
Differences among individuals in a population.
94
What is genetic diversity?
Variation in an organism's collection of genes (genome) resulting from mutation and sexual reproduction.
95
What is adaptation?
Heritable trait in an organism that aids in its survival and reproduction in its present environment.
96
What is fitness in evolutionary terms?
Relative survival and reproduction of a variant character trait.
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What are genetic mutations?
Changes to DNA that result in changes in character traits. Ultimate source of variation among organisms.
98
What is selective pressure?
Environmental factor that causes one character trait to be more beneficial than another, in terms of survival and reproduction.
99
What is anatomical homology?
Similar bone structures in different organisms with varied functions.
100
What are vestigial traits?
Physical structure present in an organism that has no apparent function and appears to be 'leftover' from a distant ancestor.
101
What are developmental homologies?
Similarities in embryonic development among related species.
102
What is biogeography?
Distribution patterns supporting evolution and plate movements.
103
What is molecular homology?
Shared genetic material indicating common ancestry.
104
What is natural selection?
The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in traits. It is a key mechanism of evolution.
105
What three observations led to Darwin's idea of natural selection?
1. Character variations can be passed to offspring (heritability) 2. Populations of organisms produce more offspring than will survive 3. Individuals within populations vary.
106
What is the connection between genetic variation and natural selection?
Those individuals with genetic variations that make them best suited to their environment will, on average, be more likely to survive and reproduce leading to evolution of a population by natural selection.
107
At what level of biological organization does natural selection act on?
Natural selection acts on individuals of a population while evolution acts on populations.
108
What is biology?
The study of life.
109
What is the fundamental unit of life?
The cell.
110
What are the three domains of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.
111
What are monomers?
Basic building blocks of macromolecules.
112
What are polymers?
Large molecules formed from monomers by dehydration synthesis reactions.
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What is dehydration synthesis?
Process of forming polymers by removal of water.
114
What is a hydrolysis reaction?
Process of splitting polymers into monomers using water.
115
What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts speeding up reactions by binding to reactants (substrates) and reducing the energy needed to carry out a chemical reaction.
116
What are carbohydrates?
Macromolecules also known as polysaccharides, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, usually with a ratio of 2:1. Main functions include energy, energy storage, and cell structure.
117
What are monosaccharides?
Simple sugars and monomers of carbohydrates, including glucose, fructose, glycerol, and ribose.
118
What are disaccharides?
Two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds. Examples include sucrose and lactose.
119
What are polysaccharides?
Long chains of monosaccharides; also known as carbohydrates.
120
What is starch?
Plant energy storage polysaccharide, made up of glucose monomers held together by 1, 4 alpha glycosidic linkages (bonds).
121
What is cellulose?
Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls made up of glucose monomers held together by 1, 4 beta glycosidic linkages (bonds).
122
What is glycogen?
Animal energy storage polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers.
123
What are lipids?
Hydrophobic macromolecules, not true polymers. Includes fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.
124
What are triglycerides?
Fats composed of glycerol and three fatty acids. Main energy storage lipid.
125
What are saturated fatty acids?
Fatty acids with single carbon-carbon bonds completely surrounded (saturated) by hydrogen atoms.
126
What are unsaturated fatty acids?
Fatty acids with one or more carbon-carbon double bonds.
127
What are phospholipids?
Major component of cell membranes, made up of a glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate.
128
What are steroids?
Lipids with fused hydrocarbon rings.
129
What are proteins?
Polymers of amino acids with diverse functions.
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What are amino acids?
Monomers of proteins, 20 common types.
131
What are peptide bonds?
Covalent bonds linking amino acids.
132
What is the primary structure of proteins?
Linear sequence of amino acids in proteins.
133
What is the secondary structure of proteins?
Folding patterns like alpha helix and beta sheet in proteins.
134
What is the tertiary structure of proteins?
3D shape of a protein formed by R group interactions.
135
What is the quaternary structure of proteins?
Complex of multiple polypeptide chains.
136
What is denaturation?
Loss of protein structure and function.
137
What are nucleic acids?
Polymers of nucleotides; DNA and RNA.
138
What are nucleotides?
Monomers of nucleic acids; include sugar and base.
139
What is the structure of DNA?
Double helix with sugar-phosphate backbone.
140
What types of RNA are there?
Includes mRNA, rRNA, tRNA.
141
What is a hydrocarbon?
Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen.
142
Which functional groups are commonly found in carbohydrates?
Hydroxyl group and carbonyl group.
143
Which functional groups are commonly found in lipids?
Carboxyl, methyl, hydroxyl group, phosphate group.
144
Which functional groups are commonly found in proteins?
Amino and carboxylic acid.
145
Which functional groups are commonly found in nucleic acids?
Hydroxyl group, phosphate group, amino group, carbonyl group.
146
Name the four types of lipids.
Fats (triglycerides), Phospholipids, Sterols, and Waxes.
147
What is the main function of waxes?
Waxes offer protection. They are very hydrophobic and seal water in and keep water out.
148
What is the main function of fats?
Fats are energy storage molecules, they also offer protection as cushioning and thermal regulation. Also known as triglycerides.
149
What are the main functions of sterols (steroids)?
Sterols function as hormones and hormone precursors, and as membrane fluidity buffers.
150
What bond holds monosaccharides together forming polysaccharides?
Covalent glycosidic bonds.
151
What bond holds amino acids together forming polypeptides?
Covalent peptide bonds.
152
What bonds hold nucleotides together to form nucleic acids?
Covalent phosphodiester bonds.
153
What is deoxyribose?
The five carbon sugar found in DNA nucleotides.
154
Which 5-carbon sugar is found in RNA?
Ribose.
155
Which nucleotides are found in DNA?
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).
156
Adenine hydrogen bonds with which nucleotide in DNA?
Thymine.
157
Which nucleotide is found in RNA but not in DNA?
Uracil.
158
Which of the macromolecules are also macronutrients?
Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins.
159
What elements commonly make up nucleic acids?
C, H, O, P, N.
160
What elements are commonly found in proteins?
C, H, O, N, S.
Bio 190
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