1
Q
How does the foramen magnum change from apes to humans?
Achieved
A
- The foramen magnum in apes is further back of the skull, whereas the foramen magnum in humans are more centered under the skull.
2
Q
How does the change of the foramen magnum position advantage bipedal locomotion?
Merit
A
- Allows skull to balance on top of spine.
- Less energy + muscle needed to keep eyes and head upright.
- Better efficiency of bipedalism
3
Q
How does the change in the foramen magnum increase the success of the H. sapiens species?
Excellence
A
- Better efficiency of bipedalism means more energy saved for other life processes (repro, respi, growth)
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- The ability to pass on favourable alleles more often successfully.
- This increases the success of the species.
4
Q
How does the spine change from apes to humans?
Achieved
A
- Apes have a C-shaped spine while humans have an S-shaped spine.
5
Q
How does the change in the spine advantage bipedal locomotion
Merit
A
- Spine ensures the mass of the upper body and center of gravity is above the base of support.
- This improves balance when upright as well as the spine acting as a shock absorber.
- Overall, improving bipedalism efficiency.
6
Q
How does the change in the spine increase the success of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
7
Q
How does the ribcage change from apes to humans?
Achieved
A
- Apes have a deeper, cone-shaped ribcage from the spine to the front, whereas humans have a flattened barrel-shaped ribcage from front to back.
8
Q
How does the change in the ribcage advantage bipedalism?
Merit
A
- Allows the mass of the upper body and the center of gravity to be above the base of support.
- This improves balance and stability and thus improves bipedalism.
9
Q
How does the change in the ribcage increase the success of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
10
Q
How does the pelvis change from apes to humans?
Achieved
A
- Apes had a narrower and long pelvis, while humans have a shorter and wider bowl-shaped pelvis.
11
Q
How does the change in the pelvis advantage bipedalism?
Merit
A
- Able to support the mass of the upper body well.
- Better attachments for large gluteal muscles to aid in leg movement and upright stance.
12
Q
How does the change in the pelvis increase the success of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
13
Q
How does the valgus angle change from apes to humans?
Achieved
Describe what the valgus angle is?
A
- There is little to no valgus angle in apes, whereas there is an increased valgus angle in humans
The femur is angled inwards from the hip.
The valgus angle is the angle that the femur makes at the knee.
14
Q
How does the valgus angle change advantage bipedalism?
Merit
A
- The valgus angle places the knees inwards to be more directly below the center of gravity and pelvis.
- This helps upright upper body and puts feet under center of gravity.
- This improves balance, stability and efficiency of bipedalism
15
Q
How does the change in the valgus angle increase the success of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
16
Q
How does the length of limbs (femur and arms) change from apes to humans?
Achieved
A
- Apes have much longer arms and shorter femurs, whereas humans have longer femurs and shorter arms.
17
Q
How does the length of the limbs advantage bipedalism?
Merit
A
- The longer femur increases stride lengths.
- Shorter arms makes it easier to hold off the ground.
- This improves bipedalism by better balance.
18
Q
How does the length of limbs increase the success of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
19
Q
How does the buttressed knee joint from apes to humans change?
Achieved
A
- Apes had less lateral buttressing in the smaller knee joint, whereas humans have more lateral buttressing in a larger knee joint.
20
Q
How does the more buttressed knee joint advantage bipedalism?
Merit
A
- Helps to prevent sideways deflection of the knee and leg muscles.
- This improves ability to support weight through the knee when upright and walking.
21
Q
How does the more buttressed knee joint increase the success of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
22
Q
How does the feet change from apes to humans?
Achieved
A
- Ape feet are on the outer side of the pelvis, no arch and the big toe is opposed.
- Human feet are placed almost directly below the pelvis, with an arch and the big toe is forward-facing and aligned with the other straight toes.
23
Q
How does the feet change advantage bipedalism?
Merit
A
- The feet under the spine/center of gravity aid in stability and balance when walking.
- Weight transfer from heel to toe and propulsion off big toe is improved because of the in line big toe and arch.
- The arch can also act as a shock absorber when walking.
- Improves bipedalism overall.
24
Q
How does the feet change increase the survival of the species?
Excellence
A
- Improved bipedal locomotion means that more energy is saved up for other life processes (repro, respi and growth).
- This increases survival chances and reproductive success.
- Also the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, leading to the success of the species.
25
How does the **scapula** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes and humans both have them on their backs, however humans have it further back with smaller muscle attachments as hanging strength/brachiation is not required.
26
How does the **scapula** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* Allows humans to pull their arms back to throw or run.
* Able to decrease mass of the upper body, helping to keep the mass above the center of gravity and base of support, improving balance/stability and bipedalism.
27
How does the **scapula** change increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* Humans are able to hunt and move more effectively, increasing survival chances.
* This increases reproductive success and passing on the favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully.
* Increases success of the species.
28
How does the **nuchal crest and muscles** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have larger nuchal crest and muscles whereas humans have more reduced nuchal crest and muscles.
## Footnote
The nuchal crest is a ridge of bone at the back of the skull where neck muscles attach.
29
How does the **nuchal crest and muscles** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The human skull is supported and balance on spine further.
* Thus, center of gravity above base of support.
* Thus, large neck muscles and crest are not required to support or hold up the skull.
30
How does the **nuchal crest and muscles** change increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* Energy is not used for heavy bone and large muscles, thus more energy can be saved up for other things such as life processes and food gathering.
* This increases chances of survival and reproductive success, with the ability of passing on favourable alleles more often successfully.
* This increases the success of the species.
31
How does the **zygomatic arch** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* The zygomatic arch is larger in apes whereas it is reduced in humans.
## Footnote
The zygomatic arch is the cheekbone.
32
How does the **zygomatic arch** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change from a tough, plant-based diet to a softer protein and energy rich diet, increases nutrient intake and energy production.
* This meant large jaw muscles and large teeth for chewing were not needed.
* Thus, the large heavy bone needed to accommodate the jaw muscles and resist chewing forces were no longer necessary and not selected for.
33
How does the **zygomatic arch** change increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* The cranial bones have become lighter, thus the skull is lighter.
* Allows the skull to accommodate a larger brain without the head becoming too hard to balance on top of the spine.
* Head balances on top of spine more efficiently, increasing the efficiency of bipedalism.
* More energy saved to use for other things (repro, respi, growth, food gathering), increasing survival chances.
* Increases reproductive success and the ability of passing on alleles to offspring more often successfully, increasing the success of the species.
34
How does the **jaw muscles** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* The jaw muscles are larger and more extensive in apes, whereas humans have reduced jaw muscles.
35
How does the **jaw muscles** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change from a tough, plant-based diet to a softer, protein-based diet meant that large jaw muscles and teeth for chewing were not needed.
* The heavy bone that accommodated the large jaw muscles and resist chewing forces were not required.
* Overall improving bipedalism.
36
How does the **jaw muscles** change increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* The skull has changed shape and the cranial bones have become lighter, thus the skull is able to accommodate a larger brain without the head becoming too heavy to balance on top of spine.
* Balance of the head on spine increases, bipedalism more efficient.
* More energy is saved up for other things (repro, respi, growth and food gathering) increasing survival chances.
* This increases repro. success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully, increasing the success of the species.
37
How does the **jaws and prognathism** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* The jaws were larger in apes, whereas was reduced in humans.
* Prognathism was larger in apes and reduced in humans.
38
How does the change in **jaws and prognathism** advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* A change in the tough plant-based diet to a softer, protein-based diet allowed more nutrient intake and energy production.
* Large teeth and large jaws were no longer needed for chewing.
* The heavy bone that accommodated the large heavy bone and resisted chewing forces was also not needed.
* Less prognathism also increased the balance of the head on top of the spine, improving bipedalism.
39
How does the change in **jaws and prognathism** increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* Due to the cranial bones becoming lighter and the skull changing shape, it can accommodate a larger brain without the head becoming to heavy to balance on top of spine.
* This increases the balance of the skull on top of the spine, improving bipedalism.
* Efficient bipedalism means that more energy is saved up for other processes (repro, respi, growth), increasing survival chances.
* This increases repro. success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often.
* This increases success of the species.
40
How does the **sagittal crest** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have a large, sagittal crest for large muscles to attach to, whereas humans do not.
41
How does the **sagittal crest** loss advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change from a tough plant-based diet to a softer, protein-based diet means more nutrient intake and large jaw muscles and teeth for chewing were not needed.
* The large heavy bone that accommodates the large jaw muscles and resisted chewing forces were no longer needed.
42
How does the **sagittal crest** loss increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* Cranial bones and skull changed shape, meaning the skull became lighter.
* This meant it could accommodate a larger brain without the head being too heavy to balance on top of the spine.
* The balance of the head improves on top of the spine, making bipedalism more efficient.
* Thus, more energy is saved up for other things and not used up for large muscles and keeping head up (reproduction, respiration, growth and food gathering).
* This increases survival chances, increasing repro. success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles more often successfully.
* This increases the success of the species.
43
How does the **brow ridge** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have a large, thick brow ridge, whereas humans have a reduced brow ridge.
44
How does the **brow ridge** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change from a tough plant-based diet to a softer, protein-based diet means more nutrient intake and large jaw muscles and teeth for chewing were not needed.
* The large heavy bone that accommodates the large jaw muscles and resisted chewing forces were no longer needed.
45
How does **brow ridge** change increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* Cranial bones and skull changed shape, meaning the skull became lighter.
* This meant it could accommodate a larger brain without the head being too heavy to balance on top of the spine.
* The balance of the head improves on top of the spine, making bipedalism more efficient.
* Thus, more energy is saved up for other things and not used up for large muscles and keeping head up (reproduction, respiration, growth and food gathering).
* This increases survival chances, increasing repro. success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles more often successfully.
* This increases the success of the species.
46
How does the **teeth** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have larger specialised teeth with large canines and molars, thick enamel coating and a diastema. They also have a U dental arcade.
* Humans have smaller teeth with thin enamel and no diastema and canines. They also have a V dental arcade.
## Footnote
A diastema is a gap for canines
47
How does the **teeth** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The smaller jaw and teeth was a cause of the change in softer diet allows a more parabolic V dental arcade, decreasing prognathism.
* This helps with better balance of head over spine, increasing the efficiency of bipedalism.
* The arrangement with no diastema because the large canines not required as sexual dimorphism and threat displays became less important.
48
How does the **teeth** increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* More energy is saved up for other things (reproduction, respiration, growth and food gathering).
* This increases survival chances, increasing repro. success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles more often successfully.
* This increases the success of the species.
49
How does the **shape of the skull** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have flatter brain cases with a low sloping forehead.
* Humans have more dome-shaped brain cases with a higher, vertical forehead.
50
How does the **shape of the skull** advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change from a tough, plant-based diet to a softer, protein-based diet with more nutrient intake and energy production meant that large teeth and jaw muscles for chewing were not needed.
* Thus, the heavy bone that accommodated the jaw muscles and resist chewing forces were not required.
51
How does the **shape of the skull** increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* These features being no longer selected for the human skull was able to become rounded with the reduction of attachment sites.
* This meant that the cranial bones and skull has changed shape, thus the skull could accommodate a larger brain without it becoming too heavy balance on top of the spine.
* This improves the balance of the head on the spine, improving bipedalism.
* Energy not being wasted on large muscles, thus more energy can be used for other things (reproduction, respiration, growth, food gathering).
* This increases chances of survival, higher reproductive success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully.
* This increases the success of the species.
52
How does the **cerebellum** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* The cerebellum is less developed and smaller in apes.
* The cerebellum is more developed and larger in humans.
## Footnote
MUST MENTION: The cerebellum is responsible for fine motor skills.
53
How does the **cerebellum** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change in the softer, protein-based diet with more energy intake promoted brain growth and development, especially in the cerebellum.
* The corresponding increase of the cerebellum was also due to the increased balance demands of being upright and walking.
54
How does the **cerebellum** change increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* The increased development of the cerebellum allows for finer manipulative hand movements to better interact with objects and make/use tools.
* This allows better access to food and gathering resources is easier.
* More food sources leads to more energy intake to promote even further brain (cerebellum) growth, leading to even finer manipulative movements for better tools, leading to a positive feedback loop.
* This increases the survival of the individuals with the increased cerebellum size, leading to more reproductive success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully.
* This increases the survival of the species.
55
How does the **speech areas** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have less developed speech areas (Broca's and Wernicke's).
* Humans have more developed speech areas.
## Footnote
Must mention: Broca's area is responsible for the muscles of speech and vocal cords.
Wernicke's area is responsible for the comprehension of spoken words - ability to listen.
56
How does the **speech areas** change advantage cooperation?
| *Merit*
## Footnote
We do not talk about bipedalism with speech areas
* The change from a tough-plant based diet to a softer, protein-based diet with more energy and protein intake promotes brain growth and development.
* Therefore, increased group living and cooperation selected for better communication abilities.
57
How does the **speech areas** increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* The better communicative abilities aided teaching, leraning, tool development and cooperation.
* This improved hunting and gathering abilities and increased survival.
* Increased reproductive success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully.
* This increases success of the species.
58
How does the **cranial capacity** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* The cranial capacity is 400-500 cm^3 in apes (lower).
* The cranial capacity is 1350 cm^3 in humans (higher) with more folding.
## Footnote
Cranial capacity is the size of brain inside the skull.
59
How does the **cranial capacity** advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* The change to a energy and protein-rich diet supplied more energy for brain growth and development (larger brain).
* Causes finer hand manipulative movements (freed hands) and better interact with objects and tools, also food gathering.
* These were selection pressures that selected for a larger brain with more folding.
60
How does the **cranial capacity** increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* The enlarged brain allowed the growth and development of the frontal lobes (responsible for abstract thought).
* This increases abstract thought for better thinking ability, communication, prediction and future planning.
* Allows better resource gathering and tools.
* This increases the survival of the individuals with the increased cerebellum size, leading to more reproductive success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring more often successfully.
* This increases the survival of the species.
61
How does the **hand** change from apes to humans?
| *Achieved*
* Apes have longer, curved fingers and shorter, non-opposable thumbs with more rigid wristbones and joints that allow power grip for brachiation and swinging through trees (arboreal living).
* Humans have shorter, more aligned and straight fingers with longer, fully opposable thumbs with more flexible and mobile wristbones and joints that allow precision grip for the making of better tools and interacting better with objects.
62
How does the **hand** change advantage bipedalism?
| *Merit*
* Hands were no longer used for supporting body weight while knuckle walking on the ground.
* Power grip was no longer needed to hold and swing through branches.
* Bones and joints became more flexible and delicate.
63
How does the **hand** increase the success of the species?
| *Excellence*
* The fully opposable thumb for better precision grip allows for finer hand manipulative movements.
* Able to interact better with objects, use and make tools better and makes getting resources easier and faster.
* This allows more energy for brain development, improving fine manipulative hand movements, causing a positive feedback loop.
* This increases the chances of survival and reproductive success and the ability to pass on favourable alleles to offspring, increasing the success of the species.
NCEA Level 2 Specified Subjects
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