Breeding for Conservation

Question 1

Species Conservation

Answer 1

Conservation defined as ‘securing populations of species for the long term’

Question 2

• In-situ Conservation

Answer 2

• Conservation in natural surroundings
• Management and monitoring of biodiversity where it is encountered • Integrated approach
• E.g. Nature reserves, biospheres, national parks

Question 3

• Ex-situ Conservation

Answer 3

• Conservation away from the natural habitat

* E.g. Zoos, aquariums, wildlife parks, safari parks, gene banks.

Question 4

Role of Zoos in Conservation

Answer 4

• “Zoos and aquariums are the third largest funder of conservation globally” WAZA 2020.
• Direct or Indirect conservation
• Financial
• Material
• In-kind contribution to research
• Ex-situ breeding
• Captive breeding programmes
• Education
• Reintroduction programmes

Question 5

Legal Requirements of Zoos

Answer 5

• Conservation requirements You must do all of the following: • keep animals in an environment suitable for their species
• do as much as possible to stop any animals escaping
• stop pests and vermin getting into the zoo
• keep records of the zoo’s collection
• help educate people about biodiversity
• Zoo operators also need to do at least one of the following: • conservation research or training
• sharing conservation information
• breeding wild animals in captivity
• repopulate an area or reintroduce species into the wild • https://www.gov.uk/guidance/keeping-zoo-animals

Question 6

Captive Exotic Species

Answer 6

• The majority of captive zoo animals are bred in captivity
• Purchase of animals from other zoos
• Transfers and exchanges between zoos • National and International
• Donations
• Private or public
• Taken from the wild (very rare)
• Orphans, injuries, disease risk, threat of extinction, seized from owners who have acquired illegally

Question 7

Captive Breeding

Answer 7

The process of breeding animals outside of their natural environment in restricted conditions in farms, zoos or other closed facilities.
Purpose in zoos and aquariums:
• Increase captive population numbers of threatened or endangered species • Preservation of captive populations
• Reintroduction programmes
• Release programmes
• Safeguarding of the gene pool
• Produce animals for zoos, aquariums, and other public facilities: • Encourage visitors
• Education
• Financial gain

Question 8

Aim of Captive Breeding Programmes

Answer 8

• To form large, viable populations of species ex situ long-term
• Purpose:
• providing animals for public educational and/or exhibit opportunities
• providing fundraising material
• providing research collections from which to gain basic knowledge of animal biology
and husbandry
• providing demographic and genetic backup to wild populations

Question 9

Viable Populations

Answer 9

• Demographically stable
• Adequate animals of breeding age
• Able to reproduce at the required rate
• Healthy, well maintained and capable of self-sustaining reproduction • Able to breed when needed
• Distributed among several institutions to lessen the risks of catastrophic loss
• Sufficient size to maintain high levels of genetic diversity • To remain healthy and adapt to changing environments
• 90% diversity for 100 years

Question 10

Management of Breeding Programmes

Answer 10

• International co-operative breeding programmes
• Four major associations:
• WAZA: The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA)
• EAZA: European Association of Zoos and Aquariums
• BIAZA British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums • AZA: Association of Zoos and Aquariums
• These associations work together for captive breeding programmes
• In the UK, captive breeding programmes are facilitated and endorsed by EAZA • EEPs

Question 11

European Endangered Species Programme

Answer 11

OLD MODEL
• Established in 1985
• Intensive population management
• An EEP per species in a breeding programme
• Each EEP has a species coordinator (specialist) assisted by the species committee
• Collect information on the status of all the animals of the species in zoos and aquariums • Producing a studbook
• Perform demographic and genetic analyses
• Produce a plan for the future management of the species
• Make recommendations on
• Which animals should breed
• Which animals should not breed
• Which animals should move and to where

Question 12

EAZA Ex-Situ Programmes (EEPs)

Answer 12

NEW MODEL
• Introduced 2018 (5 year role out)
• Population management programmes for 400 species
• Recommends strategies for the protection of zoo populations based on the specific roles that individual species can play in conservation, research, or education
• Change required due to the wide variety of reasons for species conservation for individual species
• Critically endangered animals
• Animals driven from a specific habitat.
• Public preconceptions about species that hamper conservation and fundraising efforts
• Animals bred for reintroduction programmes
• Animals bred to raise awareness of conservation issues that may not be well understood by the
public or legislators

• Taxon Advisory Groups (TAG) decide which species are to be managed under an EEP
• The EEP co-ordinator with the EEP species committee:
• Is responsible for the day-to-day management of each of the EAZA Ex situ Programmes
• Will develop, implement and update a Long Term Management Plan (LTMP)
• Manage the EEP studbook dataset
• Develop (non-)breeding and transfer recommendations, catering to the needs of EEP holders in alignment with the goals of the population.
• Publish the studbook and annual reports

Question 13

EAZA Ex-Situ Programme: Hyena

Answer 13

• A bad name with the public
• The role of the new hyena EEP
• To educate the public on hyena social life
• To undertake research on Hyena social life
• Breeding conservation within social groups
• To educate on the role Hyenas play in removing disease carrying carcasses from the savannah.
• To show how each species contributes to the health of the world’s ecosystems

Question 14

Studbooks

Answer 14

• Data base for individuals included in a captive breeding programme
• Primary objective is to facilitate the coordinated management of ex situ populations
• For each individual the studbooks should include:
• Identities of sire and dam
• Date and location of birth
• Full transaction history (names of owners and dates of ownership changes)
• Where animals have been obtained from or released into the wild, the studbook should record, if possible, details of the capture or release location
• Any individual identifiers (e.g. house names, local identification numbers, tags, transponders, tattoos)
• Any data on the reproductive potential of living animals (e.g. temporary contraception method and dates, permanent contraception such as castration)
• Date and location of death
• Cause(s) of death and information on disposal of body.
• Other information pertinent to a particular programme (e.g. sub-species, genetic analysis).

Question 15

Studbook Data Systems

Answer 15

• From 1989 studbooks typically maintained in the DOS-based Single Population Analysis & Records Keeping System (SPARKS)
• SPARKS was developed by ISIS (International Species Information System)
• Since January 2017, SPARKS has gradually been replaced by ZIMS (Zoological
Information Management System)
• Digital studbook data set developed by Species360 (formally ISIS – International Species Information System)
• ZIMS for studbooks is now a requirement of EAZA for all EEPs

Question 16

Other Considerations with conservation programs

Answer 16

• Social Interaction
• Solitary species, housing, husbandry, appropriately matched animals,
transportation • Genetic goals
• Prevent inbreeding and maintain genetic diversity • Behavioural competence
• The ability of an animal to express appropriate behaviour in a given situation, e.g. courtship, parenting
• An animal that does not show appropriated breeding behaviour may not
like the mate selected

Question 17

Breeding Cycle in Captivity

Answer 17

• Identify breeding pairs
• Prepare male and female for mating
• Oestrus detection
• Mating
• Natural
• Artificial insemination
• Embryo transfer
• Confirmation of pregnancy
• Maintenance of pregnancy
• Care of offspring

Question 18

Natural Mating in Captivity

Answer 18

• Easiest least invasive method
• No always part of an EAZA Ex-situ breeding programme
• Is this ethical?
• Highly suited where both male and females of a species exist at one zoo
• Consider genetics and inbreeding
• Individuals may be transported from other zoos once identified via EEP co-
ordinator for breeding
• If long distance this may require quarantine (up to 6 months) • Need to consider housing
• Mimic natural (wild) breeding behaviours in captivity

Question 19

Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Preparation

Answer 19

• Cheetahs: a natural mating success story (aided by research and understanding) • Captive populations are small and fragmented
• Intensive management required to retain genetic diversity
• Housing
• Hoofstock in adjacent exhibits can increase reproductive behaviours
• Predators in adjacent exhibits will reduce reproductive behaviours
• Social Structure
• Group structures have greater breeding success
• Separate males and females physically and visually (reduced likelihood of sibling bond)
• Rotate animals through enclosures and introduce new animals (increases breeding behaviours) • Logisticsincaptivity

Question 20

Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Oestrus Detection

Answer 20

• Induced ovulation (ovulation induced by mating and presence of male)
• Introduce male to female (close proximity)
• Eg male in outside enclosure overnight, female indoors
• Can measure faecal oestrogen concentrations as signs of ovulation
• Female may
• Roll on ground, Defaecate on prominent sites such as on trees
• Males exposed to female faeces and urine (if receptive to male) • Vocalise, Run, Display erections
• In adjacent enclosures, the male’s reaction normally intensifies and the female normally shows a combination of tail flagging, rolling or rubbing her head against objects

Question 21

Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Mating

Answer 21

• Staff must be experienced in recognising behaviours • Reduces fighting risk
• Helps forms successful breeding pairs
• May be some aggression
• Copulation usually occurs with the hour and lasts 30-45 seconds
• Strong mate preferences in males and females
• Introduce the female to one male.
• Introduce the female to a coalition.
• Introducing the female to a different male each day whilst receptive
• Introduce the female to a male of choice, by placing different males in adjacent enclosures

Question 22

Breeding Cheetahs for Conservation: Confirmation of Pregnancy

Answer 22

• Gestation 90-98 days
• Female separated from group
• Faecal progesterone tests:
• 70 days post-breeding.
• Progesterone levels increase above baseline post-breeding with or without pregnancy until day 60 post-breeding
• Progesterone declines from d60, rising again when the female is pregnant.
• Weekly weighing:
• During (false) pregnancy there is a steady weight gain during the first 60 days.
• After 60 days females having a false pregnancy start to lose weight, whereas pregnant females
will continue to gain
• Ultrasound:
• Requires that females are trained and not stressed by the procedure

Question 23

Maintenance of Pregnancy

Answer 23

• Housing
• Warmth
• Place to give birth
• Shelter
• Able to separate from other animals
• Nutrition • Energy
• Protein • Fats
• Health
• Vaccinate

Question 24

Care of offspring

Answer 24

• Wild animals
• Minimal interaction with humans
• Monitor for behaviours
• Monitor for health
• Colostrum (mammals)
• Warmth • Care
• Consider when to separate

Question 25

Further Challenges for Cheetahs

Answer 25

* Many females do not breed in captivity * Poor semen quality of males * To utilise genetics use artificial insemination or embryo transfer * Artificial Insemination * Unsuccessful * Induced ovulation protocol need refinement • Difficult to inseminate to the uterine horns * Embryo transfer via OPU-IVF * OPU and IVF successful * Difficulties with transfer of embryos • Feb 19th 2020 first ET cubs born

Question 26

Artificial Insemination

Answer 26

* Suitable when limited availability of individuals • Dependent on effective and reliable techniques • Requires expertise and research * Requires technical facilities * Can be invasive * Success with AI seen in captive elephants

Question 27

Artificial Insemination Elephants

Answer 27

* Oestrus Detection • Semen collection • Insemination * Few mature male bulls * Poor sperm quality and low libido • Reduced transportation of animals • Older females less likely to breed

Question 28

Oestrus Detection Elephant

Answer 28

* Endocrine monitoring techniques • Faecal and urine monitoring * LH surge * Double LH surge technique * LH surge 3 weeks prior to ovulation * LH surge 1 day prior to ovulation (ovLH surge)

Question 29

Semen Collection and Storage elephant

Answer 29

* Collected by transrectal electroejaculation of an anaesthetised bull • Semen quality is variable * Advise 70% motility for use in AI programme * Semen usually chilled * Semen can be cryopreserved * Tusker Task Force, Semen Biobanking of African Elephant Bulls * https://youtu.be/Ls9pzL8igGo * Semen collection of wild bull semen for preservation of genetics

Question 30

Artificial Insemination Elephants

Answer 30

* Over 50 individuals born by AI in captivity worldwide * First success in 1998 * Calf born 2000 (22 month gestation) * Routine procedure * Well-established

Question 31

Conservation Breeding IVF

Answer 31

* Useful where individual numbers are very low • Previously stored semen * Collected (stored) oocytes * Difficult to develop * Requires expertise and technical ability • Research-led * An option for “extinct” species * The only lifeline for the Northern White Rhino

Question 32

Ethical Considerations Captive Animals

Answer 32

* Good intentions to conserve species * But does captivity cause harm? * Ethical paradox: * Conservation is about the species * Animal welfare is about the individual * Utilitarian Opinion * The greater good for the greatest number * Harm to a few individuals is justifiable because it benefits the species * Animal Welfare Opinion * Immanueal Kant (18th Century) * The act itself must be moral and have a pure intention regardless of final consequence

Question 33

Reasons ‘For’ Captive Breeding

Answer 33

* Conservation of the species * Conservation of genetics * Moral obligation to conserve species • Habitat loss * Poaching * Safer in zoos than in wild where they would not survive * Has prevented extinction in a number of species • Golden Lion tamarin * Arabian oryx * California condor * Partula snails * Przewalski's horse * Socorro dove

Question 34

Reasons ‘Against’ Captive Breeding

Answer 34

* Low success of reintroduction programmes * Number of captive individuals too low to maintain genetic diversity * Benefit to overall species does not outweigh negative effect to individuals * Captive breeding not well established in a significant number of species * Removal of wild species from their natural habitat for breeding is immoral * Many of the animals kept in zoos are not for breeding programmes * Only 800 of the 7368 species can be conserved through captive breeding due to space limitations in zoos

Question 35

Ethical Considerations: Breeding

Answer 35

* Which species to breed? • Key species * Those most at threat * Those that have greatest chance of survival • Successfulreintroduction * An integrated approach is required • Reason for decline targeted * Habitat preservation * In-Situ conservation? * Pan-Situ * Captive populations used for restocking (where individual exist in-situ) • In-situ populations taken to captivity for genetic diversity