Building Construction/Collapse

Question 1

Why study building construction?

Answer 1

• Understanding of fire spread
• Understanding of collapse potential
• Understanding of hidden dangers
• Understanding of how to apply strategy and tactics to fight fire safety based on building construction specifics.
• Because building on fire are our work place and it is in our best interest to understand the hazards and characteristics of our workplace.

Question 2

Who said “A building does not drop from the sky as does a disabled aircraft. Neither is it a transient, much as a ship, a truck, or a train. Very often it has been in existence since long before any of the firefighters at the scene where born. Yet sad to say, in many cases the building might as well be a spaceship from Mars for all the Fire Department knows about it.” ?

Answer 2

Francis Brannigan

Question 3

Average lifespan of a building is ____

Answer 3

75-100 years.

24hr/day gravity is trying to pull it down.

Question 4

Again, why do we study building construction?

Answer 4

• On average, 110 firefighters still lose their lives each year!
• Since 1900’s, the frequency of fires has dropped considerably.
• Since 1900’s, the frequency of firefighter deaths has stayed the same.

Question 5

Building construction language

Answer 5

a. It is important for us to be able to speak the right language in regard to building construction
b. Enables us to communicate with other agencies
c. Enable s us to be more specific when speaking to each other
d. Helps our professional image
e. Clear, precise communication is essential on the fireground!

Question 6

Forces placed upon structural components are known as ____

Answer 6

loads.

Question 7

All firefighters should know what about loads?

Answer 7

i. Have a basic understanding of loads within a building.

ii. Be able to understand how the building loads will change when the building is compromised.

Question 8

What is a GRS and what does it do?

Answer 8

Gravity Resistance System

i. All structural elements and connections that support a transfer loads placed on a structure are part of GRS
ii. Designed to transfer all loads placed on the structure down to the ground.
iii. Compromise of GRS interrupts load transfer to ground. Thus loads are placed on adjoining structural members that were not meant to handle them.

Question 9

What are the two types of loads caused by gravity?

Answer 9

Dead loads

Live loads

Question 10

Whats a dead load?

Answer 10

weight of the building and everything permanently attached to it

a. We care about dead loads because added dead loads such as AC units may not have been planned for structurally.
b. Materials are expensive.
i. Reduction in dead weight at the top of a building allows reductions in the overall weight of GRS.
ii. Less mass in structural members = less fire resistance, as fire resistance is a function of its surface to mass ratio

Question 11

What are orthostatic vital signs?

Answer 11

Orthostatic vital signs are a series of vital signs of a patient taken while the patient is supine, then repeated sitting up, then again while standing. A variation is to check blood pressure and heart rate in supine and then standing positions only. The results are only meaningful if performed in the correct order (starting with supine position)[1][2][3] Used to identify orthostatic hypotension,[4] orthostatic vital signs are commonly taken in triage medicine when a patient presents with vomiting, diarrhea or abdominal pain; with fever; with bleeding; or with syncope, dizziness or weakness.

Question 12

What is a live load?

Answer 12

the weight of all movable things in and on the building, such as people, furniture, and supplies.

a. We care about live loads because they cannot be specifically calculated ( must be estimated based on building use)
b. Building codes specify minimum designs for specific uses.
i. Uniform Live load for distributed loads
ii. Concentrated load for specific large objects.
c. If the building changes, the actual live loads may change, but unless it’s renovated, the structure was designed for a different live load.
d. Firefighting can add live load to the structure that it is not designed for. For example, a 1000GPM master stream will at over 8000lbs a minute…

Question 13

What are some other things about loads that would be handy to know?

Answer 13

i. Loads placed on a building create stress within the materials bearing the load.
ii. How and where the force or load is applied to the materials determines what internal stresses the material experience.

Question 14

3 types of stress in a material

Answer 14

1. Compression: squeezing things together
2. Tension: pulling things apart
3. Shearing: sliding or bending type stress in the member.

Question 15

Define Axial load

Answer 15

1. Loads applied parallel to the axis of the member and pass through the centroid of the cross section of the member
2. Compressive
3. Tensile

Question 16

Define Tension (Flexural or Bending stress)

Answer 16

1. Force applied perpendicular to the axis of the member

2. Compressions on the top by the applied load and tension on the bottom.

Question 17

Define Eccentric Loads

Answer 17

1. Loads that are applied parallel to the axis of the member but that do not pass through the center of the cross section of the member.
2. Causes compression on parts underneath the load and tension elsewhere.

Question 18

Define Deformation

Answer 18

1. Different materials react differently to different forces. Duh.
   a. Concrete is good under compressive loads but not tension
   b. Steel is good in both tension and compression depending on its makeup
   c. Wood is decent in compression as well as tension.
2. Deformation is the change in size and shape of member under a load.

Question 19

Define Elasticity

Answer 19

a. The ability of a material to return to size and shape after deformation under load
b. A ductile material can be subject to a large amount of stress without breaking
c. A brittle material will break early when subject to a large amount of stress.

Question 20

What’s an environmental load?

Answer 20

i. Based on where a building is built, it must be able to withstand different types of environmental loads
1. Snow, wind, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc.
ii. Calculating snow/rain loads
1. Can be distributed or concentrated
2. Calculated based on average snowfall levels for the area (using a worst case scenario)
3. Normal live load calculation is 20psf for roofs (FF ~225psf-275psf)
4. Rain load obviously depends on if the water is able to run off or not and how quickly.

Question 21

What do we know about structural stability?

Answer 21

a. Depends on the loads placed on the building
i. Designed vs undersigned
ii. Dead/live loads
b. Also important is the method of load transfer
c. Buildings are meant to transfer all loads through the structure to the ground.
d. Methods of connection of its members are an important component.
e. Consider the connection of the floors to the building…
f. A building can be built with super strong materials, but if they are not connected in a way that is as strong as the materials themselves, it will fail when subjected to extraordinary loads.
g. A building is only as strong as its connections!!!

Question 22

What is fire loading?

Answer 22

i. How well does a building withstand fire?
ii. As we build with more engineered materials, to reduce the weight and amount of materials used, what happens to surface to mass ratio?
iii. As the surface to mass ratio increases, the fire resistance of the structure decreases.

Question 23

What is load application?

Answer 23

a. Distributed loads: loads distributed over a large area
b. Concentrated: loads applied in a small area (point loading)
c. Impact load: a load applied while at motion
d. Static load: A load that is applied slowly and remains nearly constant
i. Normal structure loading of building has built in static loads
ii. Typically, these loads are unchanged in the building unless structural supports fail

Question 24

What is a building/fire code?

Answer 24

a. Delineate the level of risk a community will face in regard to building failure
b. Building codes can be specific or general.

Question 25

What are specification codes?

Answer 25

i. Establishes building construction requirements through particular methods and materials ii. Example: one possible specification code might require a fire wall to be made completely out of masonry

Question 26

What are performance codes?

Answer 26

i. Sets a requirement for performance that must be met. ii. Does not limit the selection of materials and systems used as long as they meet the performance requirement iii. Example: The code may require a certain firewall to withstand 2 hours of fire exposure without failure

Question 27

Why do we care about the code the city is under?

Answer 27

i. The use of trusses and other engineered materials came about with the advent of performance codes. ii. Under a specification code, the builders were required to use certain size beams to support certain loads. iii. Under a performance code, the builders could use a TGI beam in place of a full size beam and support the same load

Question 28

What's the difference between a fire code and building code?

Answer 28

i. Building code regulates how things are constructed and is not normally applied retroactively unless renovations or remodeling occurs. ii. Fire code regulates use of building after it has been constructed, and is applied retroactively even to building hazards that existed prior to adoption of the fire code.

Question 29

What code do we use?

Answer 29

i. International building code 2012 edition 1. With local amendments. 2. Largely a performance-based code 3. Places emphasis on the metric system 4. Called the Tucson Fire Code a. Updated every 3 years b. Not a law until accepted by the local government c. 2015 edition is out, but we haven’t accepted it yet.

Question 30

How are code improvements brought about?

Answer 30

i. Advance in technology tested and proved by independent testing agencies and submitted to ICC for approval in code. ii. Changes also brought about through history by events creating large losses of life.

Question 31

Iroquois Theatre fire

Answer 31

a. 1903, 602 dead | b. Led to code changes requiring panic exit devices for emergency egress

Question 32

Coconut Grove

Answer 32

a. 1942, 492 dead b. Led to code changes requiring visible exit signs, outward opening exit doors, and limited the amount of flammable decorations.

Question 33

Beverley Hills Supper club

Answer 33

a. 1977, 165 dead | b. Led to code changes limiting aluminum wiring and required fire alarms to have an audible evacuation tone

Question 34

Happyland Supper club

Answer 34

a. 1990, 87 dead

Question 35

Our lady of angels Catholic School

Answer 35

a. 1958, 95 dead

Question 36

Rhythm night club

Answer 36

a. 1940, 203 dead

Question 37

Triangle shirt waist factory

Answer 37

a. 1911, 146 dead

Question 38

Code limitations

Answer 38

i. Adopting a code alone does not guarantee safety ii. Education and enforcement are as important as the code itself iii. For example, the Station Nightclub fire 1. 2/20/2003, West Warrick RI 2. Pyrotechnics during the opening of Great White concert started fire 3. 100 dead, 230 injured 4. Originally a restaurant and exempt from sprinkler requirement 5. Sprinkler requirement was missed when changed to a nightclub

Question 39

Tucson AZ code inspections

Answer 39

i. Not enough inspectors to inspect every building on a regular basis ii. Last estimate was 10 years between inspections iii. For our safety, preplanning is a must!

Question 40

Classifcations of buildings is based on what?

Answer 40

a. The IBC classifies buildings based on occupancy type and construction b. In general, the more flammable the construction type, and/or the more dangerous the occupancy type, the more stringent the building and fire code requirements.

Question 41

What are the types of building classification?

Answer 41

i. Assembly ii. Business iii. Educational iv. Factory v. High hazard vi. Institutional vii. Mercantile viii. Residential ix. Storage x. Utility and miscellaneous

Question 42

Five types of standard construction

Answer 42

i. Type V: wood frame ii. Type IV: heavy timber iii. Type III: Ordinary construction iv. Type II: Non-combustible v. Type I: Fire Resistive

Question 43

Type V construction

Answer 43

wood frame 1. Balloon frame: long timber going from floor to second story 2. Platform: each floor is built independent of each other.

Question 44

Type IV construction

Answer 44

heavy timber 1. Columns are minimum 8x8 2. Beams are minimum 6x6

Question 45

Type III construction

Answer 45

Ordinary construction 1. Main street USA 2. Weakest point is the adjoining parts, such as bracket

Question 46

Type II construction

Answer 46

Non-combustible 1. Metal frame structure covered by metal exterior walls. (Butler building) 2. Metal frame structure enclosed by masonry 3. Masonry bearing walls supporting a metal roof

Question 47

Type I construction

Answer 47

Fire Resistive 1. Structural elements are protected from fire exposure via encasement, encapsulation, or membrane a. Encasement is enclosing in a fire resistant enclosure such as fire rated drywall. b. Encapsulation is coating the elements in a fire resistive material (intumescent paints that are sprayed on)

Question 48

Much ado about trusses...

Answer 48

a. Size up error with timber truss roofs i. Not recognizing the presence of a truss roof ii. Lack of heat give a false sense of security iii. Conflicting reports iv. Low fire load? b. “In case of a lightweight truss roof, if there is enough heat and fire to require ventilation, the roof is unsafe; firefighters ventilating the roof should be supported independently of the roof.” - Francis Brannigan

Question 49

What is a CODE RED and what is done?

Answer 49

a. When anyone on the fireground sees or suspected a building collapse, a CODE RED is initiated by a group/division supervisor or the IC b. Fire Alarm will announce the CODE RED by sound 5 one second tones one second apart, followed by “Code Red Sector NAME” then repeat it in one minute

Question 50

Firefighter duties in a CODE RED

Answer 50

i. Take only the equipment that you will need to exit the building. ii. Do not risk your life, delaying your exit, removing hoseline, equipment, etc.!!!

Question 51

Engineer duties in a CODE RED

Answer 51

i. 15 second solid blast on air horn | ii. May surge hand lines

Question 52

Captain duties in a CODE RED

Answer 52

i. Conduct a PAR | ii. Group/division supervisors will account for all crews in their area

Question 53

What are some more building construction safety principles to be mindful of?

Answer 53

i. Collapse zone is 1-1.5 ii. Never cut principle support members iii. Light weight construction = less mass = less time iv. Trusses = less mass = less time