Thesis 1: Human nature has a natural principle of reflection (conscience) that approves or condemns our actions.
- Argument 1 (Quote): Conscience is “a faculty … by which men distinguish between … actions, and approve some as virtuous and of good desert, and disapprove others as vicious and of ill desert.”
- Argument 2: This reflective principle is “manifestly superior” to other principles, as it is meant to govern them.
- Explanation: Conscience is a natural guide that judges all our inclinations; it is authoritative, not just another passion.
Thesis 2: To follow conscience is the proper constitution of human nature.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “This principle of reflection, conscience … was placed within to be our proper governor.”
- Argument 2: Passions like hunger, self-love, benevolence are not bad—but they are subordinate to conscience.
- Explanation: Just as the eye is for seeing, conscience is for moral direction; ignoring it is a disorder of nature.
Thesis 3: Human nature is not naturally vicious or selfish, but mixed.
- Argument 1: Butler rejects Hobbes’ claim that all is self-love. “That mankind are entirely under the governance of self-love … is manifestly false.”
- Argument 2: Particular affections (like compassion, resentment, parental love) are distinct from self-love.
- Explanation: Our nature includes benevolence and self-love, but neither alone defines us.
Thesis 4: Benevolence and self-love are distinct, but not opposed.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “Self-love and benevolence do not oppose each other … both may be united.”
- Argument 2: Serving others often coincides with serving ourselves (e.g., friendship, community).
- Explanation: We are capable of acting for the good of others without denying our own good.
Thesis 5: Self-love is a superior principle compared to particular passions.
- Argument 1: Particular passions (anger, desire, compassion) may conflict, but “self-love considers the whole.”
- Argument 2: “Cool self-love may … controul our passions as much as conscience.”
- Explanation: Self-love is broader and more rational than any single passion; but unlike conscience, it is not moral in itself.
Thesis 6: Conscience is higher than both benevolence and self-love.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “Had it strength as it has right; had it power, as it has manifest authority, it would absolutely govern the world.”
- Argument 2: Conscience harmonizes self-love and benevolence, deciding what is morally right.
- Explanation: Conscience is not just another passion but a governing principle with rightful supremacy.
Thesis 7: Virtue consists in following the natural supremacy of conscience.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “Every bias … is to be considered as one part of the whole; and … the constitution of man is adapted to virtue.”
- Argument 2: A man who violates conscience “is a law unto himself … yet rebels against the law written in his heart.”
- Explanation: To act virtuously is to obey the natural constitution of our nature, i.e., conscience.
Thesis 8: The charge that virtue is unnatural is false.
- Argument 1: Virtue is as natural as any other principle, since conscience is implanted in us.
- Argument 2: “Virtue is … the law of our nature.”
- Explanation: Vice, not virtue, is the unnatural disorder of human nature.
Thesis 9: Love of neighbour is a real principle in human nature, not reducible to self-love.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “That there is some other principle … which disposes us to interest ourselves in the fortunes of others, is certain.”
- Argument 2: Compassion, gratitude, friendship show real benevolence beyond calculation of interest.
- Explanation: Humans naturally care for others; benevolence is genuine, not disguised self-love.
Thesis 10: Love of neighbour does not weaken self-love.
- Argument 1: Benevolence contributes to our happiness; we are better off by doing good.
- Argument 2: “To love our neighbour as ourselves is to consult his happiness as much as our own.”
- Explanation: Self-love and benevolence work together; society flourishes when they are united.
Thesis 11: Self-love and benevolence are mutually reinforcing.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “The happiness of individuals depends upon their having benevolence … and upon their having self-love too.”
- Argument 2: Public good and private good overlap—virtue benefits both.
- Explanation: True self-interest is never opposed to benevolence.
Thesis 12: Benevolence is essential to human happiness.
- Argument 1: “Without benevolence, there could be no such thing as society.”
- Argument 2: Benevolence enriches life by friendship, cooperation, peace.
- Explanation: Selfishness isolates; benevolence completes our nature and our joy.
Thesis 13: Love of God is the highest principle of human nature.
- Argument 1 (Quote): “The love of God is … the perfection of all virtue.”
- Argument 2: Just as benevolence binds men to each other, love of God binds us to the ultimate moral order.
- Explanation: Conscience leads beyond human relations to divine harmony; love of God crowns the system of virtues.
What is conscience in Butler’s understanding?
Conscience is the “principle of reflection” by which men distinguish actions and approve some as virtuous and condemn others as vicious. It has natural authority and supremacy in human nature.
What is self-love for Butler?
Self-love is the rational principle by which we consider our whole interest and well-being, not just particular passions. It is distinct from conscience but higher than specific desires.
What is benevolence in Butler’s view?
Benevolence is a natural affection disposing us to promote the happiness of others. It is real and not reducible to self-love.
What is the proper constitution of human nature?
The natural harmony of affections—particular passions, self-love, and benevolence—under the rightful supremacy of conscience.
What is virtue in Butler’s terms?
Virtue consists in following conscience, “the law of our nature,” and acting in harmony with the natural supremacy of reflection over passions.
What is the love of neighbour?
A genuine principle of human nature, commanding us to consult the happiness of others as much as our own, uniting self-love and benevolence.
What is the love of God in Butler’s sermons?
The perfection of virtue, aligning human conscience and benevolence with divine order.
