C2 - Non-Experimental Methods

Question 1

What is a correlational study?

Answer 1

When the researcher investigates a relationship between 2 variables, called co-variables. There is no IV or DV

Question 2

What is the process of carrying out a correlational study? (4)

Answer 2

• Decide what co-variables you will use, and operationalise them
• Measure each participant on both co-variables
• Plot the values on the scatter graph to see if there is a relationship
• Carry out a statistical test to see if the relationship is significant or due to chance

Question 3

Define positive, negative and no correlation:

Answer 3

Positive - When one variable increases, the other variable increases
Negative - When one variable increases the other decreases
No - When there is no relationship between the co-variables

Question 4

Is this an example of positive or negative correlation:
The more aggressive the parents, the more aggressive the children are

Answer 4

Positive

Question 5

Is this an example of positive or negative correlation:
The hotter the temperature, the fewer clothes people wear

Answer 5

Negative

Question 6

Is this an example of positive or negative correlation:
The fewer sweets eaten, the fewer fillings needed

Answer 6

Positive

Question 7

Is this an example of positive or negative correlation:
The colder the weather, the higher people’s fuel bills

Answer 7

Negative

Question 8

What is the maximum range of the correlation coefficient?

Answer 8

-1.0 to 1.0

Question 9

What is are weaknesses of using correlational studies? (3)

Answer 9

• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect as there is no IV and DV
• Could be a third variable
• The relationship may not be linear, which won’t show on a correlation coefficient

Question 10

What are strengths of using a correlational study? (3)

Answer 10

• The coefficient can be used as evidence to start an experimental study
• Can be used when it may be impractical or unethical to manipulate variables
• Can make use of existing data

Question 11

What is an observation?

Answer 11

When the researcher observes and records what they see

Question 12

What are the 4 types of observation?

Answer 12

• Participant vs non-participant
• Naturalistic vs controlled
• Covert vs overt
• Structured vs unstructured

Question 13

What are participant and non-participant observations?

Answer 13

Whether the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are measuring (participant), or the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are observing (non-participant

Question 14

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a participant observation?

Answer 14

STRENGTH
- The researcher can get in-depth data as they are close the the participants and so are unlikely to overlook or miss any behaviours

WEAKNESS
- The researcher being part of the group could affect the objectivity

Question 15

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a non-participant observation?

Answer 15

STRENGTH
- Researchers are more objective as they are not part of the group

WEAKNESS
Researchers may not gain as much information or miss behaviours

Question 16

What are naturalistic and controlled observations?

Answer 16

Whether the researcher is watching and recording behaviour in the setting which it would normally occur (naturalistic), or watching and recording the behaviour within a structured environment (controlled)

Question 17

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a naturalistic observation?

Answer 17

STRENGTH
- High ecological validity as behaviour is studied in an environment it would occur normally, so findings can be generalised to real life

WEAKNESS
- Hard to replicate due to low control of variables

Question 18

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a controlled observation?

Answer 18

STRENGTH
- Easier to replicate due to high control of variables

WEAKNESS
- Unnatural environment so behaviour is less natural too

Question 19

What are covert and overt observations?

Answer 19

Whether the observers are visible to the participant and they are aware they are being observed (overt), or the observer is not visible and participants are not aware they are being used in a study (covert)

Question 20

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a covert observation?

Answer 20

STRENGTH
- Behaviour is more natural

WEAKNESS
- Less ethical as participants are not aware they are taking part and cannot give informed consent

Question 21

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a overt observation?

Answer 21

STRENGTH
- More ethical as it is possible to obtain informed consent

WEAKNESS
- SDB may be present so the findings may not be applicable to real life

Question 22

What are structured and unstructured observations?

Answer 22

Whether the researcher is observing all behaviour that is seen (unstructured), or using systems to organise observations (structured)

Question 23

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a structured observation?

Answer 23

STRENGTH
- Makes the recording of the data easier and can replicate

WEAKNESS
- Important information may be missed if it hasn’t been identified as a category

Question 24

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using an unstructured observation?

Answer 24

STRENGTH
- More detailed than structured

WEAKNESS
- There may be too much to record, so there is a greater risk of observer bias as they may just write down behaviour that meets their aims

Question 25

What is time sampling in an observation?

Answer 25

When an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals

Question 26

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using time sampling in an observation?

Answer 26

STRENGTH - Reduces the number of observations being made WEAKNESS - May be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole as something may have happened in between the intervals

Question 27

What is event sampling in an observation?

Answer 27

It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs

Question 28

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using event sampling in an observation?

Answer 28

STRENGTH - Useful if behaviour doesn't happen frequently so could be missed in time sampling WEAKNESS - If too many observations happen at once, it may be difficult to record everything

Question 29

In observations, what should behaviour be operationalised into?

Answer 29

Different behavioural categories

Question 30

What should behavioural categories be? (4)

Answer 30

- Not overlap - Observable - Precise - Cover all possible behaviours

Question 31

What is inter-observer reliability?

Answer 31

The extent to which 2 or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way

Question 32

How can you check for inter-observer reliability? (6)

Answer 32

- Observers familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories - Observe the same behaviours at the same time in a small scale pilot study - Compare the data and discuss any differences - Conduct the observation - Analyse the data and calculate inter-observer reliability by correlating each pair of observations made - High inter-observer reliability shows observers are seeing the same behaviours at the same time

Question 33

What are 2 validity issues with observations?

Answer 33

- Observer bias - Validity of the behaviour categories

Question 34

How can observer bias be reduced? (2)

Answer 34

- Having more than one observer - Using double blind technique

Question 35

How can validity issues with the behaviour categories be reduced? (2)

Answer 35

- Pilot the observation and tweak the categories - Compare to similar observations already conducted

Question 36

What are self-report techniques?

Answer 36

Methods of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves without interference from the experimenter

Question 37

What are questionnaires?

Answer 37

A non-experimental, self-report method. Participants record their thoughts, feelings and opinions in a set of pre-determined questions

Question 38

What are the 2 types of questions you can have in a questionnaire?

Answer 38

- Open questions - Closed questions

Question 39

What are open and closed questions?

Answer 39

Open questions give the participant the freedom to say what they want, without being restricted to a fixed answer Closed questions provide a fixed set of responses to choose from (e.g. yes/no). Closed questions also include rating scales, such as semantic differential and Likert scales

Question 40

What are semantic differential scales and Likert scales?

Answer 40

Semantic differential - the respondent identifies a value which represents their strength of feeling (Very important 5 4 3 2 1 Not important Likert scale - The respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale (Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree)

Question 41

What are strengths and weaknesses of using open questions in a questionnaire? (1+2)

Answer 41

STRENGTH - Responses tend to include more detail and depth WEAKNESSES - Analysis is open to bias - Difficult to collate and summarise

Question 42

What are strengths and weaknesses of using closed questions in a questionnaire? (1+1)

Answer 42

STRENGTH - Responses are easier to compare WEAKNESS - Respondents cannot explain their answers

Question 43

What is an interview?

Answer 43

Where the researcher asks questions in real time, either by telephone or face-to-face

Question 44

What are the similarities between questionnaires and interviews?

Answer 44

- Both self-report - Non-experimental - Can be used as a technique in other research methods or a method in its own - Use of open and closed questions

Question 45

What are differences between questionnaires and interviews?

Answer 45

- Interviews are face to face or on the phone - Spoken answers not written - The interviewer records the responses of the participant

Question 46

What are the 3 types of interview?

Answer 46

- Unstructured - Semi-structured - Structured

Question 47

What is an unstructured interview?

Answer 47

Only the first question may be predetermined, all of the following questions are determined by the answers of the interviewee

Question 48

What is a semi-structured interview?

Answer 48

Uses both structured and unstructured techniques. Usually has some pre-determined questions but can explore answers from the interviewee

Question 49

What is a structured interview?

Answer 49

Questions are pre-set, given in order and every interviewee is asked the same questions

Question 50

What are the strengths of all interviews?

Answer 50

- In depth qualitative date can be collected - Quantitative data can be collected and statistically analysed

Question 51

What are 3 strengths of structured interviews?

Answer 51

- Requires less interviewing skill, so can be used by non-professional interviewers - Easier to analyse as the answers are pre-determined - Can easily be repeated because the questions are standardised

Question 52

What is a strength of using unstructured/semi-structured interviews?

Answer 52

Information can be accessed that might not be revealed by using pre-determined questions

Question 53

What are 2 weaknesses of using all interviews?

Answer 53

- Reliability may be affected by the same interviewer behaving differently on different occasions - Different questions may be interpreted differently by different participants

Question 54

What are 4 weaknesses of using unstructured/semi-structured interviews?

Answer 54

- Interviewer bias may be an issue as the interviewer may lead the participants when asking them to develop their responses - Reliability may be affected by different interviewers asking different questions, or asking the same question in different ways - More difficult o analyse the data as there will be lots more of it - Requires more skill from the interviewer - may need to be trained

Question 55

What is one weakness of using a structured interview?

Answer 55

The answers participants give may be restricted by the questions that are asked

Question 56

What are 2 strengths of using interviews as a whole?

Answer 56

- Direct answer from participants, not inferring from their behaviour - Can cover a range of topics and can reach a wide range of people

Question 57

What are 3 weaknesses of using interviews as a whole?

Answer 57

- SDB as participants may lie when asked directly - Clarity of questions may affect the validity of answers - Leading questions may affect responses