Biology > C3.1 + C3.2 > Flashcards

C3.1 + C3.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Define system integration (2)

A

process where different physiological systems work together + communicate

to perform a function

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2
Q

Define cell (2)

A

basic unit of life

composed of different organelles

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3
Q

Define tissue (3)

A

made up of similar cells carrying out similar functions

cells stick to each other e.g animal cells have transmembrane proteins that form links with other cells

cells communicate with each other e.g heart muscle tissue transmit electrical impulses

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4
Q

Define organ

A

made up of tissues carrying out related functions

e.g kidney is organ for excretion, leaf is organ for photosynthesis

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5
Q

Define organ system (3)

A

made up of functionally related organs working in a coordinated manner

e.g digestive system, nervous system, etc

organs are either dispersed or physically linked

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6
Q

Define emergent property

A

properties that arise due to the integration of subsystems

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7
Q

Cheetahs as an example of emergent properties (4)

A

small aerodynamic head

semi-retractable claws to provide traction

large heart and lungs

flexible spine to assist running

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8
Q

Features of the nervous system (6)

A

central nervous system - brain + spinal cord

peripheral nervous system - nerves that connect CNS to organs

highly focused - signal sent to a specific neron/effector cells

effectors: muscles/glands

fast

short duration

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9
Q

Effector response of the nervous system (2)

A

contraction of muscle e.g locomotion, peristalsis, cardiac muscles

secretion of glands e.g sweat/saliva

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10
Q

Features of the endocrine system (4)

A

chemical signal sent in bloodstream

signal sent widespread to all parts –> only certain cells respond

slower speed

longer duration

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11
Q

Effector responses of the endocrine system (5)

A

growth/development (puberty)

reproduction (gamete production, pregnancy)

metabolic rate

solute concentrations in blood (glucose + salt)

mood

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12
Q

Blood as a contributor to system integration (7)

A

transports oxygen from alveoli to cells

transports carbon dioxide from cells to alveoli

transports waste materials to skin or kidneys

transports hormones

transports nutrients from the small intestine to cells

transports antibodies to site of infection

urea from liver to kidneys

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13
Q

Cells that make up the brain (2)

A

neurones

glial cells - provide support and structure to neurons

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14
Q

Features of the brain (cerebrum) (3)

A

controls senses

initiates + coordinates movement

divided into 2 hemispheres + contains 4 lobes

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15
Q

Features of the brain (cerebellum) (2)

A

located in the back of the brain

consists of 2 hemispheres

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16
Q

Function of cerebellum (3)

A

coordination of voluntary muscle movement

maintenance of balance + posture

motor learning

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17
Q

Features of the brain (brainstem)

A

regulates involuntary activities (e.g heartbeat, blood flow, breathing rate)

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18
Q

Function of the brain (2)

A

receives/processes/stores information

sends instructions to parts of the body

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19
Q

Location and Function of the medulla oblongata (2)

A

located in brainstem

controls unconscious activities

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20
Q

Sources of information input to the brain (3)

A

specialised receptors detect stimuli in the environment (eyes)

information conveyed to the brain by nerves

information processed –> response sent to effectors by nerves

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21
Q

Conscious vs Unconscious thougths (6)

A

conscious: processes we are aware of + can control (e.g speaking, moving)

unconscious: processes that happen without conscious control + awareness (digestion, breathing)

conscious: explicit memory –> consciously recall information

unconscious: implicit memory (e.g carrying out routine tasks without being aware)

conscious: coordinated only by cerebral hemispheres

unconscious: coordinated by brain + spinal cord

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22
Q

Spinal cord in unconscious processes (2)

A

integrates information from unconscious processes only

relay system –> transfers information between peripheral nervous system + brain

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23
Q

Types of neurons (3)

A

sensory neurons

interneurons

motor neurons

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24
Q

Function of sensory neurons (2)

A

convey sensory inputs from surroundings to the CNS

different sensory neurons or different stimuli

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25
Types of sensory neurons (5)
mechanoreceptors chemoreceptors thermoreceptors nociceptors electromagnetic receptors
26
Mechanoreceptors (2)
detects motion, pressure, touch, stretch, sound convert mechanical energy into electrical signals
27
Chemoreceptors
detect chemical compounds
28
Thermoreceptors
detect both heat and cold
29
Nociceptors
detect pain
30
Electromagnetic receptors
detect light, electricity, magneticism
31
Features of sensory neurons (2)
longer dendrites electrical impulse sent to spinal cord then sent to brain
32
Function of motor neurons (3)
transmit nerve impulses in the brain/spinal cord to muscles/organs upper motor neurons - carry impulses from brain to spinal cord lower motor neurons - carry impulses from spinal cord to muscles
33
Function of interneurons/relay neurons
connect sensory neurons to motor neurons in spinal cord
34
Primary motor cortex (2)
sends signals via motor neurons to striated muscles striated muscles - attached to bone, used for movement, conscious
35
Define nerves (4)
bundles of axons of neurons sensory nerves - bundles of axons of sensory neurons motor nerves - bundles of axons of motor neurons mixed nerve - bundles of axons of both sensory and motor neurons
36
Define reflex action (2)
automatic/spontaneous response to a stimulus survival mechanism --> minimise injury to body
37
Define reflex arc
pathway of a reflex action stimulus --> sensory neuron --> interneuron (spinal cord) --> motor neuron --> skeletal muscle (effector) --> response
38
Define circadian rythym (2)
behaviour that fits a 24 hour cycle controlled by light/dark (day + night) + how bodies respond to environmental stimuli
39
Where is melatonin secreted
pineal gland in the brain
40
Melatonin function (2)
prepares body for sleep lowers core temperature
41
Melatonin structure (2)
Hydrophillic - cannot pass through hydrophobic centre of plasma membrane binds to cells in transmembrane melatonin receptors (G-protein coupled receptors)
42
Melatonin influence in circadian rythym (4)
photoreceptors detect changes in light intensity information conveyed to circadian clock in body in hypothalamus day - detects high levels of light --> instructs pineal gland to reduce melatonin secretion night - instructs pineal gland to increase melatonin secretion
43
Melatonin effect in humans (5)
lowers blood pressure lowers kidney function alters blood flow to different parts of body enhances immune system drops core body temperature
44
Define epinephrine (adrenaline) (2)
secreted by adrenal glands (just above kidney) hormone that prepares body for vigorous physical activity
45
How does epinephrine work (4)
hypothalamus sends impulses through autonomic nervous system activates adrenal glands glands secret epinephrine into bloodstream epinephrine binds to receptors in plasma membrain of target cells
46
Impact of epinephrine (5)
heart rate increases + blood pressure increases --> greater volume of blood delivered breathing/ventilation rate increases --> greater volume of oxygen breakdown of glycogen/blood sugar rises to provide energy bronchi + bronchioles dilate --> airways widen + ventilation increases vasodilation of arterioles carrying blood to muscles + liver (widen)
47
Function of hypothalamus (3)
main link between nervous system + endocrine system maintains homeostasis secretes hormones that simulate or inhibit activity of the pituitary gland
48
Function of pituitary gland (2)
secretes hormones that either stimulate cells + tissue or act on other glands, controlling their secretions
49
Roles of hypothalamus + pituitary gland (7)
growth of bones + muscles stimulates testes to produce testosterone stimulates ovaries to produce oestradiol acts on adrenal gland to release cortisol controls hormone to prevent secretion of breast milk controls hormone to inhibit secretion of growth hormone hypothalamus synthesizes oxytocin
50
Receptors in the heart (2)
baroreceptors - located in carotid sinus, mechanoreceptors - detect changes in blood pressure in arteries chemoreceptors - located in the arch of aorta, detect changes in blood pH + oxygen levels
51
Baroreceptor heart reflex when blood pressure decreases (4)
baroreceptors sense decreased stretch of arteries information sent to medulla oblongata medulla oblongata activates sympathetic nervous system activation increases heart rate + stroke volume, blood vessels constrict --> increasing blood pressure
52
Baroreceptor heart reflex when blood pressure increases (4)
baroreceptors sense increased stretch of arteries information sent to medulla oblongata parasympathetic nervous system activated vasodilation, decrease in heart rate + stroke volume, decrease blood pressure
53
How chemoreceptors work (4)
detect changes in pH levels of blood send signals to medulla oblongata activates sympathetic nervous system --> sends signals to the heart (sinoatrial node) increases heart rate to bring in more oxygen + remove more CO2
54
Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata for ventilation (4)
pH of blood decreases due to acidity of CO2 medulla oblongata detects this increases contraction + relaxation of diaphragm + intercostal muscles increased ventilation rate --> expels CO2
55
Features of the enteric nervous system (3)
located in walls of gastrointestinal tract composed of millions of neurons extends from oesophagus to rectum
56
Function of enteric nervous system (5)
controls + coordinates process of digestion involved in peristalsis release of digestive enzymes controls blood flow needed for nutrients to be absorbed controls vomiting
57
Define positive tropism
plant movement towards a stimulus
58
Define negative tropism
plant movement away from a stimulus
59
Define accuracy
how close results are to correct value
60
Define precision
how close results are to each other
61
Define reliability
measure of how similar results are for the same experiment
62
Define phototropism (2)
plant stem grows towards light (positive tropism) plant roots grow away from light (negative tropism)
63
Define gravitropism (3)
plant movement in response to gravity plant roots grow downwards (positive geotropism) plant stems grow upward (negative geotropism)
64
Define phytohormones (3)
plant hormones (act as chemical messengers) transported via vascular tissue regulate growth, development, flowering, reproduction, pathogen protection, fruit ripening, death
65
Types of phytohormones (5)
auxins cytokinins gibberellins abscisic acid ethylene
66
Define auxins (2)
growth hormones produced in shoot tips transported by diffusion + carrier-mediated transport down the stem
67
Function of auxins (2)
controll cell elongation for tropic movements inhibition of growth
68
Define cytokinins (4)
promote cell division synthesised in roots then passed to leaves + fruits delay ageing stimulate differentiation of the meristem
69
Function of gibberellins (5)
seed germination shoot elongation delaying aging maturation of flowers and fruits synthesized in apical meristems of roots, shoots, young leaves, embryos
70
Function of absisic acid in plants (4)
dropping of leaves levels increase in stressful conditions inhibits stem elongation induces dormancy in seeds
71
Features of ethylene in plants (3)
gas produced by ageing tissues plays a role in ripening of fruits causes abscission of leaves, fruits, flowers
72
Functions of ethylene (5)
breaks down cell walls to soften fruit breaks down starch to sugars for sweeter taste decrease amount of bitter phenolic compounds changes green colour of fruits into more bright colours releases compounds in the air --> aroma of ripening fruit
73
Positive feedback mechanism of ethylene
unripe fruits produces low levels of ethylene fruit ripens --> produces more ethylene (speeds up ripening)
74
Auxin mechanism when light is overhead (2)
auxin at tip of shoot diffuses evenly down the stem cells grow at same rate --> shoot grows upward
75
Auxin mechanism when light source is to one side (3)
auxins move to shaded areas auxin concentration at that side --> increased growth on that side causes plant to bend towards light source
76
Entry and exit of active cell-to-cell movement of auxin (2)
auxin enters cell passively or through membrane proteins (auxin influx carriers) auxin exists cell through membraine proteins (auxin efflux pumps)
77
Process of active cell-to-cell movement of auxin (5)
entry into cell occurs by diffusion through auxin influx carriers auxin dissociates - loses proton --> becomes negatively charged IAA pumped out by auxin efflux carrier pumps higher concentration of auxins in intercellular space than adjacent cell --> diffuse into adjacent cell auxin accumulates on the shaded area of a plant --> curves plant towards light source
78
How auxins facilitate growth (6)
auxin binds to receptor proteins on cell membranes away from light binding activates H+ ATPases protein pumps in plasma membrane pump protons into cell wall --> acidification + lowering of pH into cell wall acidification weakens bonds between cellulose K+ channels open allowing K+ ions to enter + lower water potential osmosis --> water enters + elongated cell due to turgor pressure
79
Define meristems (3)
rapidly growing tissues of undifferentiated cells shoot meristems - give rise to plants parts above ground (synthesize auxins) root meristems - give rise to plant parts below ground (synthesize cytokinins)
80
Define pathogens (2)
disease-causing organisms + viruses usually applies to viruses, bacteria, fungi
81
Major pathogen types (5)
bacteria viruses fungi protists prions
82
Primary defences against pathogens (2)
physical barriers - skin chemical barriers - mucous membranes
83
Layers of skin (3)
epidermis dermis hypodermis
84
Epidermis layer of skin as a protection against disease
keratin deposits with dead cells
85
Dermis layer of skin as a protection against disease (2)
sebaceous glands (chemical barrier) - produce oils that lower pH prevents growth of bacteria
86
Define body cavities
fluid cavities that protect internal organs
87
Features of mucuous membranes (2)
line the body cavities + parts that open up to outside line digestive + respiratory tracts as well as
88
Defense against pathogens in mucuous membranes (2)
sticky mucus traps pathogens contains enzyme lysosome (sweat, tears, saliva) - attacks bacteria cell walls + kills it
89
Respiratory epithelium in defending against pathogens (3)
ciliated cilia beat in synchronised manner - move microbes in mucus away from lungs mucus expelled from body through coughing + sneezing
90
Stomach defense against pathogens (2)
gastric secretion released by stomach lining contains Hcl low pH kills microbes + pathogens
91
Commensal bacteria as a defense against pathogens (2)
present in skin, gut, nose, mouth outcompetes pathogens for nutrients/space
92
Function of blood clotting (2)
cuts in the skin become entry points for pathogens blood clots seal entrance for pathogens
93
Steps of blood clotting (6)
activation + accumulation of platelets at site platelets form a plug, sealing the injury platelets + injured tissues release clotting factors that react produce insoluble fibrin fibrin forms a mesh - traps RBC + platelets clot dries + shrinks --> forms a scab
94
Chemical reactions in clotting factors (4)
most clotting factors are present in inactive form one clotting factor is thromboplastin thromboplastin + calcium ions --> prothrombin to thrombin (active state) thrombin converts fibrinogen (clotting factor) --> insoluble fibrin
95
Types of immune system (2)
innate immune system adaptive immune system
96
Define the innate immune system (4)
immune system present from birth responsible for rapid, non-specific defences against pathogens during daily life prevents entry of pathogens + limits ability for pathogens to spread e.g physical + chemical barriers, phagocytosis
97
Define the adaptive immune system
functions when innate immune system cannot control pathogens mediated by lymphocytes
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