Cancer

Question 1

What is meant by carcinogenisis?

Answer 1

The process where normal cells turn into cancer cells

Question 2

What is cancer characterised by?

Answer 2

Unregulated cell growth

Question 3

How does cancer begin (simple)?

Answer 3

Where one cell begins to grow and multiply in an uncontrolled manner

Question 4

If tumours are not treated, they may: (4 things)

Answer 4

1. Invade nearby healthy tissues, causing the cancer to spread further
2. block ducts and blood vessels
3. cause pressure on other body structures
4. spread to other parts of the body through the lymph or blood stream
5. alter hormone production

Question 5

Define neoplasm:

Answer 5

a new growth of cells or an abnormal mass of tissue otherwise known as a tumour

Question 6

Define benign:

Answer 6

A benign tumour is one that does not invade neighbouring tissue or spread to other parts of the body. Not usually harmful but can cause compression on other body organs or secrete large amounts of hormones

Question 7

Define malignant:

Answer 7

a malignant neoplasm is one that is capable of invading nearby tissue and spreading elsewhere in the body

Question 8

Define carcinoma:

Answer 8

A malignant tumour arising in the epithelial tissues

Question 9

Define adenocarcinoma:

Answer 9

a malignant tumour which arises from glandular epithelial cells

Question 10

Define sarcoma:

Answer 10

A malignant tumour found in supporting tissues such as bone, fat or muscle

Question 11

Define leukaemia or lymphoma:

Answer 11

Haematological malignancies arising from blood or the bone marrow

Question 12

Which 4 cancers make up almost half of all cancer cases?

Answer 12

Breast, lung, bowel and prostate cancer

Question 13

Why have rates of prostate cancer reduced recently?

Answer 13

Due to earlier detection and increased awareness or the disease

Question 14

Why have rates of bowel cancer increased recently?

Answer 14

Due to an increasingly obese population and increased levels of alcohol consumption

Question 15

Why have levels of breast cancer reduced recently?

Answer 15

Due to regular screening and fewer women having children at an older age.

Question 16

Name the 4 categories of risk factors for cancer:

Answer 16

1. Age, lifestyle and diet
2. Occupational and environmental factors
3. Family History of cancer
4. Lowered immunity

Question 17

Discuss the affect the age, smoking, weight, alcohol consumption, physical activity and UV exposure have on the likelihood of developing cancer:

Answer 17

Age: increased age leads to an increased likelihood Smoking: damages the cells in the respiratory tract, mouth, bladder and bowel leading to increased risk
Weight: low weight and a healthy diet are likely to reduce the likelihood of developing cancers of the pancreas, bowel, breast and uterus
Alcohol: increased alcohol consumption leads to increased risk of developing mouth, throat and oesophagus cancers
Physical activity: lack of physical activity leads to increased likelihood of developing breast, bowel, uterus and lung cancers
UV exposure: overexposure can lead to skin damage increasing the likelihood of developing a skin carcinoma.

Question 18

Which naturally occurring gas has been linked to increased risk of developing cancer?

Answer 18

Radon gas

Question 19

Name three viruses/bacterial infections which increase the chances of developing cancers due to cell changes:

Answer 19

HIV, HPV and Hepatitis

Question 20

Name the 6 hallmarks associated with cancer development

Answer 20

1. Cells divide spontaneously despite the absence of growth stimulating signals
2. Avoid growth suppressors: cancer cells are able to overcome the process which normally prevents cell growth
3. Avoid apoptisis: cancer cells are able to overcome the process which normally prevents cell death (apoptosis)
4. Replicative immortality: normal cells have a set number of cell divisions after which they cease to divide, however cancer cells surpass this normal count
5. Angiogenisis: cancer cells establish their own blood supply enabling them access to nutrients and oxygen which allows them to grow successfully
6. Metastasis: cancer cells move in the blood or the lymphatic system causing them to metastasise to other areas of the body and continue to grow elsewhere

Question 21

What are the 3 staple phases of the cell cycle?

Answer 21

1. quiescent stage: resting phase
2. Interphase: cells prepare for division, increase their protein supply and number of organelles + DNA replication takes place
3. Cell division: cells divide resulting in an identical set of 46 chromosomes. Errors result in death or mutation

Question 22

What are the 4 stages in mitosis?

Answer 22

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

Question 23

What is the role of the proto-oncogene?

Answer 23

Code for proteins which enable cell growth stimulating factors. These cells can mutate causing excessive growth leading to cancerous growths. Mutated proto-oncogenes are called oncogenes.

Question 24

What are the 4 categories of oncogene?

Answer 24

Growth factors, receptors, cytoplasmic signalling molecules and nuclear transcription factors.

Question 25

What is the role of the tumour suppressor gene?

Answer 25

They inhibit cell division and growth or initiate apoptisis in cells. If they mutate they can prevent cell apoposis leading to unmanaged growth and cancerous growths.

Question 26

If a cancer cells spreads elsewhere in the body, this is known as:

Answer 26

Metastasis

Question 27

How are cancer cells spread elsewhere in the body?

Answer 27

Through the blood stream or lymphatic system

Question 28

How do medical professionals establish the type of cancer present? (4 methods)

Answer 28

1. detailed history of symptoms present 2. tissue biopsy 3. clinical examination 4. lab tests to establish cell type present

Question 29

What is meant by 'grading' a neoplasm?

Answer 29

Determining how abnormal the cells are compared to how they should be.

Question 30

Define 'well differentiated' and 'poorly differentiated' in relation to neoplasm grading:

Answer 30

Well differentiated cancer cells are relatively similar to normal tissue cells and are likely to grow slowly and unlikely to spread. Poorly differentiated cancer cells are very abnormal in comparison to normal cells. They are likely to spread and multiply

Question 31

What is meant by 'staging' a neoplasm?

Answer 31

Describes the location and the pattern of cell growth.

Question 32

Describe grade 1, 2 and 3 cancer cells:

Answer 32

Grade 1: cancer cells look relatively normal and growth is slow Grade 2: cells look unlike normal cells and continue to grow and divide Grade 3: cancer cells look almost unrecognisable and continually divide at a fast rate

Question 33

What are tumour markers?

Answer 33

Antigens associated with particular tumour cells which may help to determine the location of the cancer tumour

Question 34

What is meant by the T, N and M categorisation system in relation to cancer staging?

Answer 34

T relates to the size of the neoplasm and whether it has spread into nearby tissues N relates to whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes M relates to whether the cancer has metastasised.

Question 35

Cancer is a group of diseases characterised by:

Answer 35

Unregulated cell growth