1
Q
what is the fast/biological carbon cycle
A
the movement of carbon from living things up into the atmosphere
2
Q
What processes occur in the fast/biological carbon cycle
A
- photosynthesis
- respiration
- digestion
- decomposition
- combustion
- gas exchange
3
Q
what is digestion
A
the release of carbon compounds by terrestrial and marine animals after feeding on carbon-rich materials
4
Q
what is decomposition
A
the breakdown of animals and plant structures by bacteria, and the release of carbon compounds into the atmosphere, soil, and to the ocean floor
5
Q
what is released in decomposition
A
- CO2 when oxygen is present
- CH4 when oxygen is absent
6
Q
what is gas exhange
A
the mutual transfer of CO2 between the lower atmosphere and ocean surfaces
7
Q
what are key features of the terrestrial carbon cycle
A
- dominated by photosynthesis
- carbon stored in biomass
- part of the fast carbon cycle
- bacteria in decomposition releases CO2
8
Q
How is carbon transferred to the soil in the terrestrial carbon cycle
A
leaf litter, roots, and plant debris upon decomposition
9
Q
What are the human impacts on the terrestrial carbon cycle
A
- urbanisation and deforestation affect the biomass and carbon exchange between soil and atmosphere
- clearing vegetation through combustion
10
Q
what are the key features of the marine carbon cycle
A
- carbon stored as dissolved CO2, bicarbonate ions in solution, tissue of marine organisms
- phytoplankton perform photosynthesis and are eaten by zooplankton
11
Q
what are the human impacts on the marine carbon cycle
A
warmer oceans = less CO2 absorption from atmosphere = reduction in phytoplankton activity
12
Q
What are the key features of the carbon cycle in the atmosphere
A
- usually in the form of CO2 or CH4
- carbonic acid, formed when CO2 combines with H2O in clouds
- acid rain contributes to weathering and ocean acidification
13
Q
What natural factors are causing an increase in atmospheric CO2
A
- periods of increased volcanicity
- glacial periods mean less vegetation
- interglacial periods cause warmer oceans
- winter in the north shuts down biomass
14
Q
What natural factors are causing a reduction in atmospheric CO2
A
- long-term reduciton of volcanicity
- glacial periods create cooler oceans
- interglacial periods have more vegetation
- summers in the Northern Hemisphere have increased biomass activity
15
Q
What human factors are causing an increase in atmospheric CO2
A
- burning fossil fuels
- causing more wildfires
- an increasing meat-based diet
- melting tundra releasing CO2 and CH4
- clearing natural vegetation for urban/agricultural/industrial use
16
Q
What human factors are causing a reduction in atmospheric CO2
A
- CCS schemes
- re/afforestation projects
17
Q
what is combustion
A
natural fires release carbon compounds from vegetation to the atmosphere
18
Q
What happens in stage 1 of the slow/geological carbon cycle: the transfer of CO2 into the oceans from the atmosphere and land surface
A
carbonic acid rain dissolves surface rocks and transfers soluble bicarbonate compounds to the sea via rivers
19
Q
What happens in stage 2 of the slow/geological carbon cycle: the deposition of carbon compunds on the ocean floor
A
- marine plants absorb CO2, while marine animals take in carbon to construct skeletons and shells
- phytoplankton are eaten by zooplankton and carbon-rich excrement falls to the ocean floor
- skeletal and shell remains of marine animals fall to ocean floor
20
Q
What happens in stage 3 of the slow/geological carbon cycle: the conversion of ocean sediments into carbon-rich rock
A
- carbon-rich accumulations of deposits may be converted into carbon-rich rocks or become contained as concentrations in sandstones and shales to form organic deposits (lithification) (some become fossil-fuel reserves)
20
Q
What happens in stage 4 of the slow/geological carbon cycle: the transfer of carbon rocks to tectonic margins
A
- as sedimentary rocks move in the direction their crustal plate is moving
- if they end up at collision margins, they may be uplifted to become surface mountain ranges
- carbon rich strata may be exposed to weathering (restarting the cycle)
21
Q
What happens in stage 5 of the slow/geological carbon cycle: the return of carbon compounds to the atmosphere in volcanic eruptions
A
if carbon-rich rocks move near subduction zones, they could be ejected by volcanic eruptions
22
Q
What is the physical carbon pump
A
when carbon compounds are transported to different parts of the ocean through downwelling and upwelling currents
23
Q
How does CO2 enter the ocean carbon cycle once it is dissolved in surface sea water
A
- physical carbon pump
- biological carbon pump
- carbonate carbon pump
24
What role does downwelling play in the physical carbon pump
1. downwelling currents bring dissolved CO2 to the deep ocean
2. moves into slow-moving deep ocean currents (usually staying there for a hundred years)
25
What role does upwelling play in the physical carbon pump
1. upwelling currents bring deep, cold ocean water to the surface
2. when the water warms, some of the CO2 is released back into the atmosphere
26
what is the biological carbon pump
1. driven by marine organisms
2. all about photosynthesis, respiration, eating, excreting, and decomposing
27
What does the biological carbon pump play a major role in
1. transforming carbon compounds into new forms
2. moving carbon throughout the ocean
3. moving carbon down to sea floor sediments
28
how are phytoplankton important for the biological carbon pump
1. photosynthesize and produces carbon compounds
2. brings carbon compounds into the marine food web
3. some carbon ends up in deep ocean currents and seafloor sediments
4. return CO2 and O2 to the atmosphere via respiration
29
What is the ocean carbonate pump essential to
shell building marine organisms like coral, oysters, clams, pteropods, sea urchins, some forms of planktons, and lobsters
30
What is the ocean carbonate pump linked to
1. the biological carbon pump
2. plays a big role in transporting carbon down to deep ocean sediments
31
What chemical compounds are produced through reversible reactions in the ocean carbonate pump when CO2 combines with water molecules
1. bicarbonate ions
2. hydrogen ions
3. carbonate ions
32
why are carbonate ions especially important to marine organisms
combine with calcium ions to form calcium carbonate which are used to build shells, plates, and inner skeletons
33
What happens when shell builders die
1. the carbon in their shells is transported to the deep ocean
2. becoming part of the deep ocean currents and sea floor sediments
3. as most shells dissolve before reaching the seafloor sediments, CO2 is released into the deep ocean currents
34
what happens to shells that don't dissolve before reaching deep ocean sediments
slowly build up and form calcium carbonate sediments
35
how are calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sediments transformed into limestone
lithification (this locks massive amounts of carbon away for millions of years)
36
What are the two major types of soil carbon
1. biomass (living bacteria and fungi)
2. non-biomass carbon (cellulose, starch, and lignin in dead plants)
37
What happens when soils lose their carbon
become degraded and unable to provide nutrients to support plant growth and biodiversity
38
What are the benefits of improving the soil's ability to capture and retain carbon
1. contributes to mitigation and adaptation to climate change
2. makes land more suitable to sustain biodiversity
3. preserve food security
39
what is carbon sequestration
the process of using and storing carbon
40
what does anthropogenic mean
caused by humans
41
why is permafrost important for the carbon cycle
stores lots of carbon and has a slow rate of decomposiiton
42
what is the enhanced greenhouse effect
an increase in gases in the atmosphere which enhances global warming
43
what does 'Arctic Amplification' mean
the increased warming in the arctic
44
how can energy security be defined
having reliable, affordable, and easy access to a natural resource for the purpose of energy consumption
45
which strategies can help countries try to achieve energy security
1. exploit their own resources (close to self-sufficiency)
2. imports and exports from reliable and consistent suppliers
3. import energy from many suppliers
4. switch energy supply, so there is less dependency on imports
5. recycle domestic demand for energy
46
how can energy consumption be measured
1. Gross (overall/total)
2. per capita (per person)
3. consumption per unit of GDP
4. Tonnes of oil equivalent
47
What does tonnes of oil equivalent mean
compares all energy tonnes with oil in terms of heat output
48
what factors influence the amount of energy consumed within a place
1. industrial jobs
2. environmental concerns
3. building insulation
4. government policies
5. resource affordability
6. accessibility
7. technology
8. levels of development
9. public perception
49
Who are OPEC
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
50
what is an energy pathway
the networks that transport energy in primary and secondary forms from the producer to the consumer (can have choke points)
51
what does OPEC do
1. control the volume of oil and gas entering the global market
2. controls prices of oil and gas
3. accused of holding back production to raise prices
4. stabilise oil prices to ensure members gain a good price
5. acts as a monopoly
6. makes political decisions instead of economic ones
52
What role does a consumer have in energy
creates a demand
53
What role do TNC's have with energy production
1. explore, exploit, and distribute energy resources
2. own supply lines and invest in distribution
3. process raw materials
4. respond to market conditions to create a profit
54
What factors influence a national governments approach to energy
1. meet international obligations
2. secure sustainable supplies
3. support the economic growth of the country
55
how can national governments influence energy consumption
1. change prices
2. scale tariffs
56
how can energy pathways be disrupted
1. prices and payment
2. piracy
3. terrorism or conflict which closes choke points
4. political discord between producers and consumers
5. diversion of supply
6. technical interruption
7. supplies run out
8. natural disasters
57
what are the three unconventional fossil fuel reserves
1. hydraulic fracturing
2. progressively deep oil wells
3. tarsands
58
what are the dangers with fracking
1. contamination of groundwater by chemicals
2. surface subsidence
3. produces airborne pollutants (CH4, SO2, benzene)
4. mysterious animal deaths
5. industrial explosions
59
What are the benefits of nuclear power
1. high energy production
2. 'green' energy
3. relatively cheap once operational
4. low GHG emissions
5. reliable, consistent production
60
What are the costs of nuclear power
1. terrorism threats
2. disposal of toxic waste
3. high construction cost
4. uranium shortages
61
What are the benefits of wind power
1. abundant (in the UK)
2. cheap
3. less pollution than fossil fuels
4. high energy generation
62
What are the costs of wind power
1. NIMBY issues
2. land is required
3. wind needs to be a certain speed
4. noise and visual pollution
5. expensive to transport energy to urban areas
63
What are the benefits of solar power
1. 0 carbon emissions
2. reduces energy bills
3. efficiency can reach 42%
4. minimum maintenance required
5. one of the cheapest forms of electricity generation
64
What are the costs of solar power
1. carbon cost created through production and shipping
2. high installation cost
3. expensive to store electricity
4. requires sunlight
5. can decrease food production in rural areas
65
What are the benefits of hydro-power
1. little emissions
2. produces lots of energy
3. less environmentally damaging
4. cheapest form based on life span and energy production
5. small scale required to be developed
66
What are the costs of hydro-power
1. can be environmentally invasive
2. emissions produced during construction
67
What are the benefits of biofuels
1. cheaper
2. cuts carbon emissions
3. easily grown
4. reliable
5. abundant
6. recycles waste products
7. can be carbon-neutral
68
What are the costs of biofuels
1. deforestation
2. requires pesticides and fertilisers
3. requires space
4. less clean
5. emits GHG when burning
6. can be imported from other countries
69
What are the benefits of CCS
1. new technology
2. reduces emissions
70
What are the costs of CCS
1. expensive and complex technology
2. uncertain over how long carbon can be stored
3. energy intensive
4. limited scale
5. environmental risks and challenges
71
What is Carbon Capture Storage
catch CO2 and transport it underground into rocks or as liquids or gas
72
What are the benefits of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
1. no pollution is created by the vehicles
2. good source of heat and electricity for buildings
3. produces H2 and liquid as fuel
4. can use gas pipelines
73
What are the costs of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
1. expensive to transport
2. very flammable
3. needs fossil fuels to produce
4. high cost
74
What are the benefits of Electric Vehicles
no emissions
75
What are the costs of Electric Vehicles
1. expensive to gain lithium
2. only travels a small distance
3. requires electricity
4. child labour exploitation
5. lithium replaces oil
76
What are the benefits of geothermal energy
1. environmentally friendly
2. no fuel required
3. no emissions
4. reliable
5. will last until the Earth is destroyed
6. low CO2 footprint
77
What are the costs of geothermal energy
1. location restriction
2. expensive to build
3. can cause earthquakes
4. gas like radon is released into the atmosphere
78
What are the benefits of tidal energy
1. 0 emissions
2. low operational cost
3. generates lots of energy
79
What are the costs of tidal energy
1. expensive
2. energy demand would be greater than production
3. environmentally destructive
80
What does causation mean
a direct cause and effect relationship
81
what does tipping point mean
a critical threshold where changes accelerate withour reversal
82
how do human activities threaten to destabilise the carbon and water systems
1. demand for resources
2. overpopulation
3. burning of fossil fuels
4. contamination of air, soil, and water
5. land use changes
6. soil degredation through intensive agriculture
83
what are the benefits of natural grasslands
1. traps moisture and floodwater
2. absorbs toxins from soil
3. maintains naturally healthy soil
4. covers dry soil
5. maintains natural habitats
6. terrestrial carbon store
7. carbon sink
84
what are the disadvantages of converting grasslands to croplands
1. initial removal releases CO2
2. soil bacteria releases CO2 during annual ploughing
3. heavy water consumer
85
what is ocean acidification
when the ocean's pH decreases as CO2 levels rise
86
what does 'climate zones are shifting' mean
1. arid regions are growing
2. rainfall patterns change
3. climate zones are growing and shrinking
87
how can forest loss influence human well-being
1. collapse of business and industry
2. damages farming
3. impacts Indigenous people
4. lose potential medicines
5. lose food
6. poorer air and water quality
7. lose biodiversity and carbon sequestration
8. drought frequency increases
88
what is the Kuznet curve
countries degrade the environment as they grow, then improve once they are developed
89
why do humans need healthy oceans
1. fishing (food, jobs)
2. benefits of coastal tourism
3. biodiversity
4. carbon store
5. energy
90
what are some adaption techniques to deal with climate change
1. water conservation and management
2. resilient agricultural systems
3. land use planning
4. flood-risk management
5. solar radiation management
91
what are the benefits of water conservation and management
1. less resources are used
2. less groundwater abstraction
3. attitude changes on a long term basis
92
what are the costs of water conservation and management
1. efficiency and conservation won't match demand
2. government promotion and enforcement is required for something of such a large scale
93
what are the benefits of resilient agricultural systems
1. high tech drought tolerant species help resist climate change and increased diseases
2. more indoor intensive farming
3. selective irrigation over crops, mulching, crop rotation over large forests
94
what are the costs of resilient agricultural systems
1. more expensive technology
2. technology is unavailable to subsistence farming
3. high energy costs for intensive indoor farming
95
what are the benefits of land use planning
1. soft management
2. enforcing strict run-off controls and soakaways
96
what are the costs of land use planning
1. public antipathy
2. political 'hot potato'
3. requires strong governance, enforcement, and compensation
4. unfeasible to abandon high-risk areas
97
what are the benefits of flood risk management
1. hard management
2. simple changes (permeable tarmac)
3. reduction of deforestation
4. more upstream afforestation to absorb water and reduce downstream flood risk
98
what are the costs of flood risk management
1. debates over finding sources
2. land owners may demand compensation
3. constant maintenance required
99
what are the benefits of solar radiation management
1. cools the Earth in months
2. is cheap
100
what are the costs of solar radiation management
1. untried and untested
2. reduction, no elimination GHG effects
3. requires tinkering with a complex system
4. geoengineering needs to continue for decades or centuries
101
what are some mitigation techniques to deal with climate change
1. carbon taxation
2. renewable energy
3. regenerative agriculture
4. reducing demand and efficiency
5. afforestation
6. CCS
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