1
Q
Explain these key words for the carbon cycle:
Flux
Store
Anthropogenic
Systems
Equilibrium
Petagrams/gigatonnes
reservoir turnover
organic
A
Flux- how carbon transfers from one store to another.
Store - loation where carbon is held
Anthropogenic - human causes - impacts on carbon.
Systems - how carbon cycle operates - inputs, outputs, stores and flows.
Equilibrium - balance between different fluxes.
Petagrams/gigatonnes - measures of carbon.
reservoir turnover - time taken for store to refresh carbon.
organic - carbon found in living organisms.
2
Q
Describe the link between fossil fuel consumption and rising carbon levels:
A
The more fossil fuels we use, the more carbon released into the atmosphere - causing greenhouse effect and global warming.
3
Q
explain the 2015 paris climate change conference:
A
- first legally binding globsl climate deal - 195 countries joined, although it wasn’t ratified.
- During Trump administration USA left agreement leading to importance of COP26 glasgow climate summit in 2021.
- However, again not all countris attended and major players like China and India did not agree to phase out fossil fuel but a phase down.
4
Q
Explain India and their contribution to carbon:
A
- India accounted for 6% of carbon emissions in 2015 and 66% of its energy relied on Coal. This has since increased due to technological developments and population increases.
-600 million new users of electricity in India from the expanding middle class as a result of development is driving coal consumption.
-This comes at a cost - child labour is used to exploit India’s coal reserves and allow for economic development in the country - this prevents children from being able to attend school (cycle of decline).
5
Q
Explain oil price fluctuation:
A
This tends to be political rather than physical. To prevent large changes in price due to changing demand OPEC producers monitor supply via price controls.
Price changes allow OPEC nations to maintain market control as other energy players come into play.
Recent conflicts such as Russia/Ukraine have fluctuated European oil prices
6
Q
What is carbon?
A
A chemical element - exists in pure form or can be mixed eg. carbon dioxide.
7
Q
What is carbon sequestion?
A
the process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in long-term carbon stores.
8
Q
What is the carbon cycle?
A
- A biogeochemical cycle whereby carbon is stored and moved between the atmosphere, land and the oceans through flows or fluxes.
- It is a closed system.
- Carbon stores can add carbon to atmosphere (sources) and remove carbon from the atmosphere (sinks).
- Stores of carbon are also referred to as pools, stocks and reservoirs.
- If the sources equal the sinks the carbon cycle is in equilibrium.
9
Q
What is the geological carbon cycle?
A
The geological carbon cycle is a natural cycle that moves carbon between land, oceans and atmosphere.
10
Q
What is the difference between the geological and bio-geochemical carbon cycle?
A
The primary difference is the timescale and speed: the bio-geochemical (fast) cycle operates over days to centuries through photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition, quickly moving carbon between the biosphere and atmosphere. The geological (slow) cycle takes millions of years, moving carbon via weathering, sediment burial, and volcanic activity.
11
Q
Look at 5/2/25 - lesson 1 for the map of carbon cycle
A
12
Q
Where is most of the earths carbon found?
A
Most of Earth’s carbon is located within geological stores. These are either in the form of carbonate rocks, or as biologically-derived geological carbon in the form of coal, oil and shale.
13
Q
What are the two formations of biologically-derived geological carbom?
A
- oil
- coal
14
Q
Explain the formation of oil:
A
- Remains of dead aquatic plants and animals die and sink to the sea bed.
- Lack of oxygen causes anaerobic decomposition.
- Compression and heating occurs.
- Oil and gas occurs in pockets under caprocks.
15
Q
Explain the formation of coal:
A
- Remains of trees, ferns and other plants are covered in layers of silt/mud.
- Lack of oxygen causes anaerobic decomposition.
- Compression and heating occurs.
- The higher the compression and heating, the harder the coal e.g. anthracite is the hardest, and peat least hard.
16
Q
What are the two geological processes in which carbon can be released?
A
- weathering (particularly chemical)
- volcanic out-gassing
17
Q
Explain weathering as a geological process in which carbon can be released:
A
- Chemical weathering as rain water can dissolve carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
- Carbonic acid dissolves minerals into component ions
- Calcium ions flow into ocean (eventually forming calcite – shells)
- Calcite is turned into limestone under pressure (CaCO3)
18
Q
Explain volcanic out-gassing as a geological process in which carbon can be released:
A
- Volcanoes release CO2 during eruptions
- They also move geological carbon from mantle to surface (constructive PB)
- Emit 0.15 – 0.26 GtC annually (very small – humans emit 35 GtC)
- Emission of CO2 from Kilaueu, Hawaii responsible for around 35% of total
1816 - the year without a summer. - Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia caused temporary blocking of sunlight, cooling global temperatures and preventing plants from photosynethsing
19
Q
Explain these key terms:
- equalibrium
- sequestration
- photosynthesis
A
- equalibrium - how the carbon cycel is balanced on land and in sea.
- sequestration - The removal and storage of carbon from the atmosphere, usually occurs in oceans, forests and soils through photosynthesis/.
- photosynthesis - the use of energy from sunlight to produce nutrients from carbon dioxide and water.
20
Q
Why are phytoplankton important?
A
- Phytoplankton photosynthesise in the surface layers of the ocean (where the sunlight penetrates the ocean)
- Calcium carbonate shells store the carbon on the exoskeleton of the phytoplankton
- The thermohaline conveyor moves these calcium carbonate shells into the deep ocean due to the density of the salty cold water in the atlantic, removing the carbon from the atmosphere
21
Q
In the oceans, carbon can be moved in 3 ways:
A
- Biological pump: Sequestration of carbon by phytoplankton
- Carbonate pump: Inorganic carbon storage with shells
- Physical pump: Absorption of carbon by water
22
Q
Explain the thermohayline circulation and the effect if climate change stops it:
A
The thermohaline conveyor allows nutrients to circulate in the oceans, fertilising the upper ocean and allowing phytoplankton to provide the service of carbonate pumping - if climate change stops the THC, it stops the carbon pump! This is because if upwelling stops, carbon particles cannot sink and act as an ocean store.
23
Q
Explain the role of THC in balancing the carbon store:
A
No salt stored within ice –> cold saline water is more dense and so sinks –> carbon dioxide is then released back into the atmosphere.
24
Q
What is the greatest and smallest oceanic carbon pumps:
A
- lithosphere = greatest store - 99.9%
- biosphere = smallest store but still important
25
what is a terrestial carbon store and how do they sequester carbon?
A terrestrial carbon store is a land-based store of carbon. They sequester carbon through the process of photosynthesis.
26
Where is carbon found in terrestial ecosystems?
In terrestrial ecosystems carbon is found in plants, animals, soils and micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
27
Explain the role of photosynthesis in the pedosphere (soil), biopshere (plants and trees) and atmosphere (above plants and trees)
pedopshere - plants break down into organic carbon
biosphere - carbon respires into the air from soil
atmosphere - carbon photosynthesises into plants from the air
28
Explain how terrestrial primary producers sequester carbon during photosynthesis:
Exchange between plants and the atmosphere is rapid. Green plants are primary producers that use solar energy to produce biomass. Plant growth on land and algae and phytoplankton growth in oceans. As plants grow, they release cO2 back into the atmosphere via respiration.
Organisms known as primary consumers - bugs, beetles and herbivores all depend and feed on producers and return carbon to the atmosphere during respiration. In turns organisms such as insects, worms and bacteria feed on dead plants, animals and waste and are biological decomposers.
29
look at lesson 4 for more detailed image
30
What are 3 important biomes when it comes to storing carbon and why?
- wetlands
- mangrove
- tropical forests
Wetlands contain peat, an organic sediment made of dead vegetation and decompose very slowly due to the absence of oxygen. This is similar to the conditions found in mangrove swamps.
Tropical forests are some of the largest biological carbon sinks, but are very fragile and can quickly disappear.
31
Explain why wetlands are important biomes for storing carbon?
- water covers soil
- rich in biodiversity - provide habitats for many plants, animals ect.
- play role in food control and carbon storage
32
Explain why mangroves are important biomes for storing carbon?
- coastal biome - found tropical/sub-tropical regions where saltwater meets land
- consists of salt - tolerant trees and shrubs
- help stabilise shorelines and reduce erosion
- provide habitats and act as carbon sink - store large amount of carbon in waterlogged soils - slow decomposition of plant material - cause carbon to accumulate rather than release.
33
Explain why tropical forests are important biomes for storing carbon?
- dense, warm, wet biome found near equator
- high biodiversity- recieve lot of rainfall
- absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and produce oxygen.
34
What are the two ways that carbon fluxes can vary and explain:
- Diurnally – during the day the fluxes are positive, from the atmosphere to the ecosystem; at night the flux is negative, with loss from the ecosystem to the atmosphere
- Seasonally – in the northern hemisphere winter atmospheric CO2 concentrations rise and then drop again in spring.
35
Explain the significance of carbon sequestion:
- Reducing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, helping to mitigate climate change.
- Maintaining balance in the carbon cycle by transferring carbon from the atmosphere to long-term sinks.
- Long-term storage in terrestrial stores (e.g. peatlands storing carbon for thousands of years), preventing rapid return to the atmosphere.
- Oceanic sequestration by phytoplankton, which forms the basis of the biological carbon pump, transferring carbon to deep ocean stores when organisms die and sink.
36
Define these key terms:
- natural greenhouse effect
- enhanced greenhouse effect
- greenhouse gases
- radioactive forcing effect
- natural greenhouse effect - The warming of the atmosphere as gases such as co2, methane and vater vapour absorb heat energy radiated from earth.
- enhanced greenhouse effect - more greenhouse gases - by humans - which are trapped in the atmosphere.
- greenhouse gases- atmospheric gases—such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor—trap heat radiating from Earth toward space.
- radioactive forcing effect- the difference between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by earth and energy radiated back into space. positive = earth recieves more incoming energy from sunlight than it radiates to space.
37
Explain the link between atmospheric co2 and earths temperature:
The higher the co2 emitted, global temperature rises - causing rise in sea level.
38
Name some greenhouse gases:
- carbon dioxide
- methane
- nitrous oxide
39
why is the greenhouse effect so important?
The greenhouse effect is responsible for keeping our planet at a survivable temperature; the Earth’s average temperature is 15oC. Without the GHE, it would be -6oC.
40
look at 5/3 or lesson 5 at the image showing greenhouse effect
41
explain arctic amplification
Melting permafrost releases CO2 and CH4 - this creates a positive feedback cycle with more melting of permafrost and therefore more GHG release.
Excessive summer ice melt and reduced snow cover means trees and shrubs are establishing in permafrost areas - this has changed ecosystem dynamics (arctic fox moving Northwards for food and territory)
Warmer temperatures also accelerate decomposition (although if new plants grow they may be able to store carbon)
Hydrological cycle - Alpine glaciers may be ice free by 2100, this would alter rainfall patterns, river regimes, flooding frequency and change river sediment yields.
42
What are the 3 factors that affects precipitation, temperature and biome distribution?
- increased altitude
- albedo effect
- different cells
43
Explain these 3 factors:
- increased altitude - air gets thinner, less likely to absorb and maintain heat - gets colder. Decrease oxygen levels.
- albedo effect -- increased ice melt - permafrost - darker surfaces exposed and greater heat absorbtion, increases earth surface temperature = more ice melt. Positive feedback cycle.
- different cells - hadley cell - low pressure equator = air rising. tropical rainforest - water. Air has to move 30 degrees north and south= deserts - air sinks, clouds cannot form - high pressure.
Ferrel cell - arrows other way round - driven by 2 cells. Thermally indirect - drives prevailing westerly wind - cause warm, moist sub tropical air polward - rises at 60 degrees - meet cold polar air - unstable, unsettled weather.
Polar cell - precip = snow - air moves 90 degrees north and south - meet band of sinking air = cold deserts.
44
Why are soils important?
healthy soils:
without soils, the nutrient cycle can not operate properly.
- sequester carbon
- retain moisture
- improve resilience to wetter weather
- contain more carbon or organic matter
- provide air, water and nutrients for micro-organisms and plants to thrive
- contain many worms and other organisms
- dark, crumbly and porous
45
Explain the imbalance of fossil fuel consumption
explain positive and negative feedback:
The burning of fossil fuels has been the single greatest change to the balance of the carbon cycle. This change in atmospheric carbon has resulted in a number of impacts, as well as positive and negative feedbacks.
Positive feedback – When a change leads to a strengthening of a system e.g. Dying forests and warming oceans emit CO2 which in turn warms the planet further
Negative feedback – A change leads to the diminishing of a system e.g. warmer temperatures result in increased vegetation growth, which reduces atmospheric carbon
46
explain the impacts on increased fossil fuel consumption on:
- Balance of carbon pathways and stores
- Implications for climate
- Implications for the hydrological cycle
- Balance of carbon pathways and stores - if carbon sources and sinks are equal, the carbon cycle is said to be equalibrium, maintaining steady ammount of co2 in atmosphere helps stabilise global temperatures, human activity have increased co2. Process of fossil fuel combustion has altered the balance of carbon pathways and stores - carbon being released in large amounts from stores, the floes have greatly increased.
- implications for climate - Rising levels of atmospheric co2 are believed to be causing global temperatures to increase, causing climate to change. Increase will vary: Across europe - annual average land temp projected to increase by more than gloabl average. Annual precip is projected to increase inn northern europe and decrease in southern europe. Extereme weather pattern events are also likely to increase in both intensity and frequency.
-implications for the hydrological cycle: projected changes in temp and precipitation will have impacts on the hydrological cycle. In summer months, much of europes water comes from melting alpine galciers but by 2100 climate scientists estimate eatern alps will be complely ice free effecting hydrological cycle: precip in form of snow could diminish and rainfall patterns change, river discharge pattern may also change with greater flooding in winter and drought throughout summer, as alpine galciers melt, water flows lead to increased sediment yield. Once glacers have retreated discharge and sediment yeilds fall and water quality declines.
47
give the most and least significant impact that burning fossil fuels have on the climate:
most - number of cold days and nights will decrease, and warm ones increase. There have been fewer extreme cold events over the last 50yrs but more extreme heat events.
least - The average arctic temperature has already increased at twice the global average over the last 200 yrs. snow and ice cover will contract with the ablation of glaciers.
48
give the most and least significant impact that burning fossil fuels have on the ecosystems:
most - habitat changes means than 10 % of land species with limited adaptability will face extinction as the climate gets warmer and either wetter or drier. Arctic and antarctic fauna will be effecte - polarbears, snowy owls ect.
least - shift northwards of climate zones - marine diversity may be lost as fish move away from warming sea temps and about 80% coral reefs could bleached.
49
give the most and least significant impact that burning fossil fuels have on the hydeological cycle:
most - rivers will dry up in regions where precip is reduced due to higher evapouration rates.
least - permafrost areas will thaw and add more water to artic rivers.
50
What is energy secuity ?
An uninterrupted supply of affordable energy
51
What are the two types of energy insecurity and explain:
- physical energy insecurity - deficiencies in the physical infrastructure of a home or region that prevent residents from meeting basic energy needs, such as heating, cooling, or lighting
- economic energy insecurity - the inability to afford, access, or consistently pay for necessary household energy services, often resulting in high energy costs relative to income
52
Give an example for each type of energy inecuity:
- physical - South Africa - power crisis - due to corruption. many power comes from coal . feb 2022 - jan 2023.
- economic - Uk -don't have physical supply - reply on other places. Our energy = expensive and not affordable.
53
Explain the pattern in energy consumption across the world:
- high levels of energu consumption in: Australia , cn=anada, USA, Saudi arabia, oman
Northern hemisphere - use more - may be due to being more developed - energy intensive devices, high demand - more energy usage.
-population does not relate to energy consumption - levels of development do.
54
What are the two types of energy and explain:
- primary - consumed in raw from eg. fossil fuel burning
- secondary - energy transported from the grid through infrastructure.
55
What is an energy mix?
The energy mix of a country is the source of the energy that it consumes, whether it be from domestic or foreign locations, primary or secondary sources, or renewable or non-renewable.
56
Case study - energy mixes in UK and Norway - 12/3/25 lesson 7
57
Name the 4 energy players and explain their roles:
- energy TNcs - explore, exploit and distribute energy resources. They own supply lines and invest in distribution and the processing or raw materials, as well as electricity production and transmission, they respond to market conditions to secure profits for their shreholders. eg. BP and Shell.
- OPEC - organisation of petroleum exporting countries is a permanent inter-governmental organisation. Its members are oil producing countries eg. Saudi Arabia. OPEC mission is to co-ordinate and unify the petrol policies to its members, to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets in order to secure:
- efficient, economic and regular supply of petrolum to customers
- a steady income for producers
- a fair return for those investing in industry
Eg, OPEC has set oil production quotas to respond to economic conditions-
boosting supplies when demand rose ect.
- National governments - to meet international obligations, whilst securing energy supplies for the nations present and future, as well as supporting the countrys economic growth. Regulating the role of private companies and setting environmental priorities.
- Consumers - Create demand. purchasing choices are oftern based on price/ cost issues.
Have some power over oil companies eg. by purchasing electric cars/ installing solar pannels to cut energy costs. Expansion of nuclear energy and extraction of oil and gas by fraking - controversial - widespread protests.
58
Explain what energy pathways are:
The route taken by any form of energy from its source to its point of consumption. The routes involve different forms of transport, such as tanker ships, pipelines and electricity transmission grids.
59
What are the potential problems of energy pathways?
Pathways can either pass directly from source to recipient (bilateral) or can cross the borders of many countries (multilateral). The current events of the countries that these pathways run through (transit states) can greatly influence the reliability of a supply.
60
What are chokepoints?
A narrow sea channel or convergence where key transport routes can easily be disrupted.
61
name some political conflicts and pathways:
- Russia gas to europe
- US invasion of Iran causing strait of Homez to close (pathway) and european oil prices to skyrocket.
62
Case studies - Russia gas to Europe and strait of Homez lesson 8
63
Explain the conflict with Russia gas to Europe:
Russia (Gazprom) is a major player when it comes to natural gas. 80% of Gazprom’s natural gas is exported to Europe. Russia’s relationship with Europe is also shaky at best, and this can result in pathway disruption. The closure of Ukrainian transit means gas supply has fallen by 44% to mainland Europe.
China has now replaced Russia as the main gas supply to Europe.
64
explain fossil fuels and the history of where they are found:
what happend as a result of the seemingly abundant fossil fuels?
Most coal in Western Europe and N.America framed during the Carboniferous (300-360 million years ago).
Oil and natural gas formed during the Mesozoic era (250-260 million years ago). Intense heat and pressure converted organic matter into fossil fuels that were then trapped under non-porous rocks.
As a result of seemingly abundant fossil fuels in the combustion engine that was popularised during the Industrial Revolution, most technologies support electricity from fossil fuels.
Therefore fossil fuel combustion is cheap and effective. As countries progress through their early and rapid development stages they consumer many cheaply available fossil fuels.
65
What is the difference between convectional and unconvectional fossil fuels?
Conventional fossil fuels (oil, gas) are easy-to-access resources found in porous, permeable rock, allowing them to flow naturally to wells whereas petroleum and natural gas resources trapped in impermeable geological formations that require advanced, expensive, and often controversial technology (like hydraulic fracturing or surface mining) to extract.
66
What do unconventional fossil fuels allow?
areas like the USA and Canada to become more energy secure.
67
What are the 4 types of unconventional fossil fuels and give an example for each:
- Deep Water Oil - eg. Gulf of Mexico & Brazil
- Tar Sands - bitumen sands in Canada
- Shale Gas - methane seams in sandstones and shales - fracking in the UK
- Oil Shale - Kerogan in sedimentary rocks
68
What are the implications to unconventional fossil fuels and how have they changed the idea of 'peak oil'?
Geologists have been predicting ‘peak oil’ for some years – i.e. that oil production will reach a global peak, before declining sharply. But, Canada now exploits tar sands to boost its energy security, and an abundance of shale gas in the USA has brought an economic boom.
69
Case study - unconventional fossil fuels - lesson 10
what are the socio-economic impacts, carbon cycle impacts and environmental impacts on Canadian Tar sands?
- socio economic impacts - expensive and difficult to extract
- carbon cycle impacts - combusts as fossil fuels
- environmental impacts - high water use, Deforest Tiaga biomes in Canada - melts permafrost, deforests and combusts as fossil fuels.
70
what are the socio-economic impacts, carbon cycle impacts and environmental impacts on USA shale gas?
- socio economic impacts - contaminates tap water, shale oil boom - led to new industrialised jobs.
- carbon cycle impacts - long term effects - contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and increase fossil fuels - further exacerbates climate change impacts.
- environmental impacts - process can cause earth tremors, potential for air pollution.
71
what are the socio-economic impacts, carbon cycle impacts and environmental impacts on Brazilian deepwater oil?
- socio economic impacts - major revenue - boosted Brazils economy, jobs created - high skilled and high paying, regional inequality - oil wealth concentrated in coastal states Rio de Janerio - inland poorer regions benefit less.
- carbon cycle impacts - higher emissions during extraction - additional co2 emissions. Risk - oil spills disrupting carbon sink eg. oil contaminated damages marine ecosystems eg. plankton.
- environmental impacts - risk oil spills an marine pollution - contribute to climate change.
72
What are the 3 types of renewable and recyclable energy ( fossil fuel alternatives)
- nuclear power
- wind power
- solar power
73
Why can solar power be a renewable energy source?
The Earth receives massive amounts of energy from incoming radiation
Potential for harnessing the Sun’s energy is enormous
74
What are 3 types of solar power and explain each one:
Solar water heaters – Use the sun’s energy to heat water and then stored in a tank for later use
Photovoltaic cells – Converts light energy to electrical energy via semiconducting materials.
Concentrating solar power – Reflective materials (mirrors and lenses) concentrate sunlight into a central point. Used in large scale commercial solar.
75
Why can wind power be a renewable energy source?
1% of the world’s energy is produced through wind power (USA / Europe looking to expand but Brazil is still a major player)
Wind turbines should be built in flat open areas, with a strong wind
Large-scale farms connect to the national grid
Small-scale = one turbine on a building or in a garden (excess is sometimes sold to the grid)
76
Why can nuclear power be a renewable energy source?
Steam is created when uranium or plutonium atoms are split, also known as nuclear fission
The first commercial reactor opened in 1956
There are 439 nuclear reactors in 31 countries around the world
Nuclear accounts for 15% of the supply of the world’s electricity
77
What are the costs and benefits of solar as renewable energy
Costs -
- some solar farms take up productive farm land - people argue should be producing food at a time when food costs are rising.
- initial set up is high and electricity may be needed to pump water to rotate helioststas.
Benefits:
- cheap and free supply of energy once solar pannels are installed - reducing domestic heating bills.
- little environmental impacts - no habitat lost if solar panels placed on buildings.
78
What are the costs and benefits of wind as renewable energy
Costs
- locals think it ruins the seascape and birds can be killed by turbines
Benefits
- million homes will be supplied by Hornsea wind project using offshore wind turbine.
79
What are the costs and benefits of nuclear as renewable energy
costs
- the Fukushina nuclear disaster left thousands of km of land radioactive.
- Risk contamination/dangers associated working in nuclear power plants if leaks.
Benefits
- before Tohoku earthquake 27% japans energy came from nuclear power
- jobs created - in nuclear power stations.
80
What is a biofuel?
the general name for fuels produces from organic matter (biomass), including plant material and animal waste. Biofuel is commonly used to refer to liquid fuels used in vehicles.
81
explain the benefits and costs of biofuesl with examples:
benefits:
Cars running on bioethanol emit 80% less CO2 than petrol cars. Brazil (the first maker of bioethanol in the 1970s) aimed to double it’s bio-ethanol production by 2024.
costs:
Other countries are planning to increase their bioethanol production but this can come at a cost. Rainforests in Malaysia have been cleared to grow Oil Palm which can be used for bioethanol production.
82
Explain how there can be a trade off between food and energy?
the increase of the production of one leads to the decrease of the other.
Happens when the same resources—like land, water, and crops—are used to produce fuel instead of food.
Some energy sources, especially biofuels, are made from crops such as corn, sugarcane, or soybeans. Instead of being used to feed people, these crops are turned into fuels like ethanol or biodiesel.
This means there is: less food available, higher food prices a supply drops, competition for resources as farmers need water and labour.
However, can provide jobs , renewable energy sources and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
83
How carbon neutral are biofuels?
- Biofuels can reduce emissions compared to fossil fuels, but they are not truly carbon neutral in most cases because of emissions from farming, land use, and processing.
- strength is they dont run out
- but they create a trade off with food which can reduce food.
- they can contaminate water resources.
- may be farming emissons involved such as Tractors, fertilizers, and machinery release greenhouse gases,
Fertilizers can produce nitrous oxide, a very powerful greenhouse gas and forests and grasslands may have to be cleared to grow crops - releases large amounts of carbon and reduce future co2 absorption.
84
what does radical technology mean?
Radical technology refers to a new invention or innovation that brings major, transformative change, rather than small improvements to existing technology.
85
What is one example of radical technology and explain how it works:
Carbon capture and storage CCS -
Carbon dioxide compressed and injected in liquid form into geological reservoirs. Could reduce emissions by 19% globally but not yet economically viable - Thames estuary could be used if it becomes affordable
86
What are two types of alternative energy sources and example how they work:
- Hydrogen fuel cells - Chemical energy in hydrogen is converted to electricity (pure water is the bi-product). Aim to use renewable sources to separate hydrogen from compounds.
- Electrical vehicles - If your electricity is from renewable sources then electric cars offer a way of transporting people and goods without needing combustion engines.
87
What are the alternative to fossil fuels?
- renewables - wind, solar, nuclear
- biofuels
- radical technology + alternative energy sources
88
What has the growing demand for food, fuel and other resoucres led to?
- degradation for resources as we are consuming more food and fuel than ever - we are changing our natural environment to suit these needs
89
What are 3 ways we are degrading the natural environment and explain:
- Deforestation - In 2015, 30% of all global forest cover had been completely cleared, 20% degraded and the rest fragmented. Approximately 13 million hectares are deforested annually, the equivalent to 36 football fields per minute.
- Afforestration - Afforestation and reforestation is beneficial for CO2 sequestration, but monocultures of commercial trees, such as in palm oil plantations, often store less carbon, use more water and are disease prone.
- Grassland conversion - Grasslands cover 26% of global land area. There are two types:
Temperate grasslands (no trees, wide annual temperature range, prized for agriculture and therefore suffer most degradation)
Tropical grasslands (scattered trees, land conversion is increasing despite often infertile soils)
90
What are the 4 main causes of deforestration?
Soybean production (cattle feed)
Palm oil
Beef
Paper creation
91
Explain one impact of deforestation in each of these categories:
- water
- soil
- atmosphere
- biosphere
- water = annual rainfall is redcued and seasonality of rainfall increases.
- soil - Flood peaks are higher and lag time is shorter.
- atmosphere - Less absorption of Co2 means a reduced carbon store.
- biosphere- Biomass is lost due to reduced plant growth/ photosynthesis.
92
explain how afforestration can alter the carbon cycle:
Afforestation, the planting of trees on land that has not previously been forested, can significantly alter the carbon cycle. Trees act as primary producers and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, storing it as biomass in trunks, branches and leaves. As forests develop, litterfall contributes organic matter to the soil, which can increase soil carbon stores over time. As a result, afforestation is often seen as a method of enhancing carbon sequestration and creating a carbon sink. However, its effectiveness depends on the type of land being converted. If trees are planted on land that already contains substantial carbon stores, such as natural grasslands or peatlands, the disturbance of soils during planting can release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In such cases, there may be an initial net loss of carbon before any long-term gains are realised.
93
Explain how grassland conversioncan alter the carbon cycle:
The conversion of grassland to other land uses, such as agriculture or forestry, can also have important impacts on the carbon cycle. Grasslands typically store a large proportion of their carbon below ground in extensive root systems and soil organic matter. When grasslands are ploughed or otherwise disturbed, decomposition rates increase as soil is exposed to oxygen, leading to the release of carbon dioxide. This can significantly reduce soil carbon stores and turn the system into a net carbon source. Although converting grassland to forest may increase above-ground carbon storage, this can be offset by losses of soil carbon, particularly in the short term. Overall, the impact of grassland conversion depends on the balance between gains in biomass and losses from the soil, as well as the timescale over which changes occur.
94
Explain ecosystem resilience:
- There are 4 threats that are pushing ocean ecosystems across a critical threshold and towards permanent damage.
These are:
- Acidification - Happens when the oceans absorb carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. CO₂ reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid, lowering the pH of the water. This makes it harder for marine organisms like corals, shellfish, and plankton to build shells and skeletons.
- Warming temperatures - SLR eg. Tuvalu. damages habitats.
- Extreme weather - El Nino and La Nina - brings droughts in Australia and floods in South America. They affect thermohaline circulation - NEED TO KNOW IN MORE DETAIL!!
- Pollution - bleach coral reefs, killing marine life, micro-plastics don't break down.
These push ocean ecosystems across a critical threshold and towards permanent damage.
95
What is the critical threshold?
point where decisions made before permanent damage is done.
96
How are oceans a major carbon sink?
The world’s oceans are a major carbon sink – they have absorbed about 30% of CO2 produced by humans since 1800. As atmospheric CO2 concentration increases, the oceans absorb more, reducing the pH.
97
What impact does ocean acidification have on coral reefs?
- Atmospheric co2 concentration increase
- reduces the PH levels
- Lower pH reduces the availability of carbonate ions, which corals need to form calcium carbonate skeletons
98
case study - coral reefs - lesson 12
99
Explain the threats and impacts due to ocean health:
- The well–being and survival of many coastal communities depends on the health of the ocean and marine ecosystems, especially in developing countries.
- Climate change affects ocean temperatures, the supply of nutrients, ocean chemistry, food chains, wind systems, ocean currents and extreme weather events such as frequency and intensity of tropical storms.
- These changes then affect the distribution, abundance, breeding cycles and migrations of the marine plants and animals that millions of people directly or indirectly rely on for food and income.
- Many of those most reliant on these environments are the poorest
100
What 4 services do ecosystems conduct for us?
- Supporting
-Provisioning
- Regulating
- Cultural
101
What are the impacts on food sources for wildlife due to ocean health?
Climate change is altering the distribution and productivity of species, food webs and biological processes.
Areas affected include the warming waters of the North Atlantic where cold water plankton is dying; a major food source of the North Atlantic cod. Meanwhile in the Arctic and Southern Ocean, krill is declining by up to 75% per decade; a major food source for whales.
The impacts of this range from shifts in animal movement; some species are now having to adapt by finding food in alternative areas including further north / south and in areas where humans are found.
102
What are the impacts on food sources for humans due to ocean health?
The FAO estimates that fishing supports 500 million people, 90% of whom are in developing countries.
Aquaculture = the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants.
Fish is the cultural choice in some places (Iceland and Japan for example), however in poorer countries such as Namibia, Ghana and Senegal, it is an absolute necessity.
Fish provides 16% of the annual protein consumption for 3 billion people and is the main source of cheap protein for over a billion people worldwide.
Millions of small-scale fishing families depend on seafood for income as well as food; 6% of GDP is from fish and it provides essential protein in many of the 49 small island developing states such as St Lucia and the Maldives.
Countries that depend on exports of their fish resources, such as China and Thailand, will be affected by depleted stocks.
Only nations with large industrialised fishing fleets, like the UK and Japan, will be able to follow fish that shift location due to ocean warming.
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What are the impacts on tourism and coastal protection due to ocean health?
The environmental pressure group Oceana has produced a composite ranking of the vulnerability of coastal countries to increased threats such as acidification and a rise in sea temperature. They identify the top 3 at risk as being the Maldives, Togo and the Comoros Islands.
Their risk equation is…
Exposure + dependence + lack of adaptive capacity = vulnerability.
Poorer, less diverse economies with rising populations are less able to cope with changes to ocean health and may be unable to import alternatives. What is important to note however, is that they are often the least responsible for historic emissions of carbon dioxide.
Geography paper 1 - Physical
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