1
Q
intelligence
A
the capacity to be a general problem solver and to solve a wide variety of problems in a wide variety of domains through pattern recognition, analogous transfer, and reasoning
2
Q
IQ
A
- “intelligence quotient”, a standardized measure of one’s intelligence developed by Terman
- it is one’s mental age divided by one’s chronological age multiplied by 100, it is standardized so that comparisons between individuals is clearer
- used in the Stanford-Binet test
- challenged by the issues that as one ages, one’s IQ score will go down even though it is implausible that one is becoming less intelligent with age
- measure the ability to complete a pattern, short-term memory, the ability to grasp analogies
3
Q
self-enhancement bias
A
the tendency to judge one’s performance as better than the average without any evidence of special expertise or training
4
Q
low intelligence is often associated with what characteristics?
A
it is generally correlated with lower socioeconomic status and health
5
Q
what is the origin of the word “intelligence”?
A
- it came from two Latin words “inter” meaning between and “legere” meaning to choose, pick out, read
- original use of the word referred to the ability to discern true or important information from false ones
- root meaning refers to being able to read between the lines
- intelligence is thought to generate more behavioural flexibility
6
Q
what two dimensions of behavioural flexibility did Aristotle distinguish?
A
- practical wisdom: the application of knowledge, the use of action
- theoretical wisdom: the pontification of ideas across contexts, the conceptualization of underlying explanations of thoughts and actions across situations
7
Q
origin of the word “intellect”
A
- Aristotle stated the ability to engage in reasoning that is both cross-contextual and contextually sensitive as nous, which is translated as intellect
- meant the ability to discern or notice underlying patterns
8
Q
Flynn effect
A
the finding by James Flynn that on average IQ scores were rising, which are supposed to be immune to cultural influences. the result is controversial since it implies that most people several generations back were unintelligence
9
Q
what are the three main explanations that try to identify the precise causes of the change in IQ scores (Flynn effect)
A
- 1st explanation: overall improvement in nutrition and medical care results in significant positive effects on the healthy development of the brain and cognitive abilities
- 2nd explanation: focuses on improvements in education, post-industrial society emphasizes the importance of abstract thinking, scientific reasoning, classification, and focus on logical and mathematical analysis
- 3rd explanation: increase in environmental complexity resulted from rapidly changing technology, which is believed to have necessitated adaptations in the use of one’s working memory and attention
10
Q
what does it mean to use “scientific spectacles” according to James Flynn?
A
to group concepts using classification schemes
11
Q
concrete vs abstract thinking
A
concrete thinking considers the basic, physical properties, while abstract thinking considers meaningful relationships and other higher-order features like category membership (modern world uses more abstract thinking, whereas people in the early 1900s used concrete thinking)
12
Q
according to James Flynn, why do modern people tend to see the orange circle surrounded by little circles as smaller than the one surrounded by big circles? (the Ebbinghaus illusion)
A
pre-modern villagers are not as influenced by holistic context because they are not used to transferring knowledge form one context to another, whereas modern people tend to look at things with a holistic approach and how each items are in relation to one another
13
Q
when was the written form of intelligence measurement first introduced
A
in the early 1900s. Prior to written measures, earlier physiological measures were used to assess intelligence but the perceived relationship was not psychometrically sound (lacked reliability and validity)
14
Q
who is Francis Galton?
A
- a psychologist and statistician who focused on measuring varied abilities of people using empirical methods to ensure precise assessment
- he hypothesized that one’s general cognitive ability (g) was the product of heredity and that intelligence was related to how well one used one’s senses
15
Q
weight discrimination
A
the ability to notice small differences in weight
16
Q
pitch sensitivity
A
the ability to notice differences in pitch
17
Q
variability
A
represents how far scores differ from the mean
18
Q
standard deviation (SD)
A
- commonly used measure of variability
- magnitude of SD indicates the degree to which scores cluster around the mean
- large SDs indicate higher levels of discrepancy between the scores and the mean, low SDs mean scores are tightly clustered around the mean = less variability
19
Q
describe the outcome of Galton’s tests
A
across his 17 measures, the tests were not predictive of each other (low concurrent validity) and were not predictive of academic success (low predictive validity), the scores were unrelated
20
Q
Binet and Simon’s intelligence test
A
- focused on behavioural measure of intelligence
- defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, comprehend well, and reason well
- they developed tests that reflected three basic abilities: direction, adaptation, and criticism
21
Q
direction
A
the ability to know what to do and how to do it
22
Q
adaptation
A
the ability to create strategies for implementing this knowledge and monitoring its progress
23
Q
criticism
A
the ability to step back and find errors in one’s thinking
24
Q
how was performance measure on Binet and Simon’s tests
A
performance was measured by how many of the tests a child could successfully complete. Since Binet noticed that intelligence developed with age, tests corresponding to a child’s age were given to each and the tests gets progressively more difficult.
25
mental age
according to Binet and Simon, one's mental age indicates the average age of children who can solve the set of problems that a particular child is capable of solving (4 yo solving a problem that an average 4 yo could answer)
26
what was significant about Binet and Simon's intelligence test
it helped standardize the measure of intelligence, it allows many other researchers to use the same test and the same calculation to meaningfully compare results (further scientific investigation)
27
the Stanford-Binet test
the first written (paper and pencil) measure of intelligence and was referred to as the Binet-Simon test
28
what did Terman do that was significant in calculating one's IQ
- he built on Binet's work and followed the suggestion of William Stern to divide the person's mental age by their chronological age to get their IQ. this would indicate if the child was above or below the average performance of their age group
- IQ = (mental age/chronological age)*100
- the scores matched the assessment by teachers of the student's intelligence, proving validity to the test. Terman's test was superior to Galton's, and the Stanford-Binet test became the standard for intelligence testing
29
who created the first assessment of intelligence with physiological measure
Francis Galton
30
what is the problem with the way scores are derived using the Stanford-Binet test?
intelligence would appear to level off at 16, meaning that while one's mental age stays constant, their chronological age still advances, so their IQ score will go down over time. (40yo would be scored less intelligence than a 20yo)
31
deviation IQ
Weschler's solution to the problem of Terman's method of measuring intelligence. He replaced comparing mental age and chronological age with comparing one's performance to the average score on a test for a large number of ppl of the same age. How one's score deviated from this average score was used to calculate one's IQ (average IQ is always 100 points, and one SD is always 15 points)
32
what are the advantages of Wechsler's tests (WAIS)?
- unaffected by the age of the participant because they are deviation IQ tests
- the use of a point system rather than age, the questions are grouped according to content (participant doesn't have to answer a set number of questions to receive a score)
- each items answered on the test is assigned a score (allowing for a more fine-grained assessment, they are assessed according to certain content areas)
- addition of performance IQ tests
33
describe the primary character of Wechsler's method of calculating deviation IQ
compute a person's IQ by comparing their performance to the performance of all other people of their age who have ever taken the test
34
what are the performance tests in WAIS?
standardized tests designed to assess an individual's ability to detect non-obvious patterns and use them to answer a question.
35
Raven's Progressive Matrices
classic non-verbal test used to measure intelligence. People are presented with a pattern or shape, and must infer which of several options is correct. It considered useful for testing intelligence where language doesn't interfere with performance
36
cognitive revolution
during the 1950s, psychology underwent a significant revision in its definition as a field and its methods and practices due to the influences of Norm Chomsky and Jerome Bruner. Behaviourism was no longer the dominant paradigm. Instead, they put more emphasis on the meaning of stimuli and internal processing to explain behaviour
37
what is the multi-store model developed by Atikinson and Shiffrin
this model explained memory in terms of how information flows between different types of processors (sensory, short-term, long-term memory) and various methods of processing (selective attention, maintenance, and elaborative rehearsal)
38
explain the cognitive approaches to intelligence
cognitive psychologists consider how people process information, and organize this information processing into flowcharts, like the multi-store model
39
inspection time
a method proposed by Nettelbeck and Lalley for measuring intelligence by measuring the processing speed of human beings. the idea is that it is a simple task (identify which of two lines was longer) that anyone can do, so the only difference is how quickly they can do it
40
choice reaction time
- a method proposed by Jensen for measuring intelligence by indirectly measuring nerve conductance speed by directly measuring processing speed
- Jensen proposed that intelligence is the speed of neuronal conduction, so intelligence is based on how fast neurons could transmit information
41
reverse engineering
a methodological strategy in cognitive science that explains human behaviour. It involves creating a computer program that is capable of reproducing a particular pattern of behaviour (complex problem) found in human beings and then using the functions and processes within that program as hypotheses for explaining the human behaviours
42
componential analysis
studying intelligence by determining how complex problems are solved by breaking the complex problems down into their simpler component problems
43
encoding the information
how information is represented so that it can be processed by the functions found within an information processing system (creating representations of the elements of the analogy that connect to stored information)
44
what did Sternberg's work reveal about intelligence
more intelligent people took longer to encode the problem to come up with a general strategy for it, they concentrate on formulating a problem well, which slows them down initially but speeds up the process as a whole.
45
what is the correlation between reaction time and IQ
there is a weak negative correlation between reaction time and IQ
46
eugenics
became popular in the U.S. in the early 1900s as a means of preventing "less-desirable" people from having children and passing on their "inferior" DNA. The idea that government should encourage the "superior" race and classes to reproduce while preventing "lower" races and class from reproducing. Francis Galton is credited as the founder of the eugenics movement, which Terman advocated for in the U.S. This argument has been widely discredited as inherently unethical
47
social Darwinism
a misapplication of Darwin's theory of biological evolution to the supposed explanation of the evolution of culture. "the survival of the fittest", a confusion of moral argument with the scientific explanation that was often used in conjunction with eugenics for immoral ends. It is now discreditable for misunderstanding Darwin's theory as claiming that the strong survive while the weak perish
48
possible factors that affect scores on intelligence measures
- adequate nutrition, quality of attachment between parent and caregiver, and reliable access to books all correlated with measures of intelligence
- familiarity with geometrical shapes could influence one's score on Raven's Progressive Matrices
- innate characteristics correlating with measures of intelligence evolved independently of physical characteristics. researchers believe characteristics that correlate with modern measures of intelligence were shared by other species, meaning these abilities are older than humans
49
stereotype threat
refers to the risk of confirming negative expectations about one's own social group
50
mindset
a mental structure of representations, attitudes, and interpretations that affects how one evaluates information and thereby responds to situations
51
mindfulness
paying attention to how one is paying attention to and thereby interpreting situations requires a suspension of inner speech and inferential processing so that attention can be directed to what one is finding salient in one's current experience. It can be practices by meditation and contemplative practices to change working memory function and attention and thereby change intelligence scores, it can also resist the decline in intelligence that comes with age and improve brain function associated with intelligence
52
rationality
the ability to overcome self-deception in one's reasoning and problem-solving. it is not the same as being logical, involves being able to recognize and counteract the effect of bias on one's cognition
53
is there an overall average difference between female and male intelligence?
through the tests conducted by Jensen and the study conducted by Johnson and Bouchard using 42 different tests, there was no evidence for any average difference between male and female intelligence
54
selection effects
the skewing of data so that it does not represent the world accurately, often due to biased selection of data
55
active open-mindedness
the thinking disposition in which one sensitizes oneself to look for and be more aware of bias in one's thinking and reasoning, and one cultivates habits of counteracting those biases
56
factor analysis
- initiated by Charles Spearman, the use of statistical measures to determine how much variables are related to each other in order to find clusters called "factors" (using inter-item correlations)
- when items have high correlation coefficients, it is concluded that the items are measuring a similar concept (same factor)
57
what is "g"
variable that stands for the general factor of intelligence (genera intelligence or general cognitive abilities) - Charles Spearman
58
according to Spearman, intelligence is made up of two levels, explain the difference
- higher-order level of general intelligence - the ability that you can apply to any content area "g"
- lower-order specialized abilities - refers to a more specialized version of the general ability, can only be applied to more limited content areas "s"
59
Spearman's first proposal of what general intelligence (g) is
g involves the following: (1) apprehension of one's own experience (2) the education of relations, and (3) the education of correlates
60
apprehension
refers to how one sizes up situations (making something the focus of your attention, making implicit decisions as to what's important, formulating problems you are trying to solve, deciding how to connect your current situation to your goals)
61
Spearman's second proposal of what general intelligence is
g reflected the mental energy available throughout the whole cortex, that more intelligent people had more energy to devote to mental tasks and could perform more difficult mental tasks
62
primary mental abilities
according to Louis Thurstone, intelligence is made up of seven factors called the primary mental abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, numeric abilities, spatial visualization, memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning
63
fluid intelligence (Gf)
the ability to think and solve problems in complex and novel situations in a flexible manner without relying primarily on knowledge you already possess
64
crystallized intelligence (Gc)
the ability to solve problems and reason about situations because of knowledge that one already possesses
65
cognitive flexibility
the ability to change how one is formulating a problem and to redirect one's attention accordingly, often involves breaking out of standard and/or automatic forms of behaviour
66
Wisdom Paradox
this is Goldberg's name for the fact that we seem to get wiser with age even though out intelligence goes down with age, due to the fact that intelligence is a fixed trait while rationality and skill are abilities that can be increased with training and practice
67
according to Mayer and colleagues, emotional intelligence is made up of what four components?
- the ability to perceive emotions accurately
- the ability to use emotions to facilitate thought
- the ability to understand emotions
- the ability to manage emotions
68
three components in Sternberg's theory of triarchic intelligence
- analytical intelligence - when the components are applied to the kinds of problems found in standard IQ tests
- creative intelligence - when the components are applied to unfamiliar situations where novelty is important
- practical intelligence - when the components are applied to real-world settings
69
successful intelligence
Sternberg's phrase for the optimal coordination of analytic, creative, and practical intelligence to be successful at achieving one's goals
70
multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory that there are many intelligences that apply to specific domains of human behaviour, he claims that this is reflected in those domains for which we can find prodigies
71
knowledge illusion
thinking we know and understanding more than we do
72
Upper Paleolithic Transition
the period when many of the traits of intelligence we regard as distinctly human came into being (wider variety of tools, invention of projectile weapons, invention of calendars and season-specific hunting, ceremonial burial, cave painting, sculptures, instruments, jewelry)
73
contextual focus
the ability to shift between defocused attention and focused attention. defocused states trigger more associational and intuitive thought whereas focused attention triggers more logical and directed thought
74
metacognitive control
allows one to break out of stuck or fixated modes of thoughts and alter what is salient
75
why is it wrong to think that intelligence is 50% genetic and 50% environmental?
it is probable that the biological and the cultural evolution of intelligence are deeply intertwined, and it is unlikely that there is a gene for intelligence as it is probably based on many genes and various combinations of these genes
76
what is the best way to explain the heritability of intelligence
general intelligence is a function of both nature and nurture
PSYA02
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