CH2

Question 1

what is rationalism

Answer 1

theory/beleivf that reason not expeiriecne is key source of knowledge

Question 2

The Scientific Method

Answer 2

1.Identify the problem
2. Gather information (research)
3. Generate a hypothesis
4. design and conduct experiment
5. analyze data and formulate conclusions
6 repeat process (replicate exact or with extensions)

Question 3

Descriptive methods

Answer 3

-methods for gathering information and describing specifics of behaviors, patterns, and other phenomena.
-methods focus on the who, what, and where, versus the why or how.
- there are 4 (naturalistic observation, participant observation, surveys, and case studies)

Question 4

Naturalistic observation (descriptive method)

Answer 4

• observation as it happens in natural environment. no manipulation
• pros: help generate new ideas about observed phenomenon. ecologically valid behavior
• cons: lack of control, not sure what is influencing behaviour. researcher bias. interrater reliablity (may not achieve). possible hawthorne effect

Question 5

Participant Observation (descriptive method)

Answer 5

• researcher becomes part of group investigation
• pros: more enriching experiience. greater access to daily life.
• cons: maybey hawthore effect. not reliable and not replicable. researcher bias (may see things that arent there)..
• expriment: David Rosenhan (1960-1970s) were concerned with validity of diagnosis

Question 6

Case Studies (descriptive method)

Answer 6

• in depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual
• not replicable. often hard to generalize from one case
• the HM hippocampus case
• phinease gage`

Question 7

Surveys (descriptive method)

Answer 7

• good to collect quick info
• cons: sampliing error bias, aquiscent response bias. socially desirable bias. illusionary superiority, volunteer bias.
• Alfred kinsey: (1894-1956) revolutioniazed understanding of people sexual behaviours by collecting surveys

Question 8

sampling error/bias

Answer 8

poor wording of survey questioncan cause confusion and may lead eeople naturally towards one answer

Question 9

acquiescent response bias

Answer 9

tendancy for participants to agree/respond in the affirmitave on a survey

Question 10

socially desirable bias

Answer 10

response that will be seen as socially acceotable on a survey

Question 11

illusionary superiority

Answer 11

tendancy to describe our own behaviours as better then average (on survey)

Question 12

volunteer bias

Answer 12

only motivated fraction of population participate in survey

Question 13

RELIABILTY

Answer 13

if study is repeated will we get SAME RESULTS? a study can be reliable but not valid. ex: personiality test is only reliable if results are the same

Question 14

VALIDITY

Answer 14

do methods used really measure the variable of interest?
- valid study = study that actually measures and tests the variable we want to study and not another variable (study can be reliable but not valid)

Question 15

Correlation + spurious correlation

Answer 15

observation if two traits are related. or how well you can predict the change in one trait by studying the other trait
-corerelation is NOT causation
- no manipulation of variables
- correlation does not explain WHY it happned
- SPURIOUS: two or more variables are associated but not causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third, unseen factor (basically random rubbish)

Question 16

Experimentation: a third research strategy

Answer 16

• experiments concerned with cause and effect
• manipulating factors of interest tp determine effect
• can test theory
• control group, experimental group
• tests causailty

Question 17

What is a Hypothesis

Answer 17

• educated guess. rules:
  1. consistent with prior observation
  2. simple
  3. specific
  4. measurable/testable
  5. establish CAUSALITY
  6. falsifiable (cant prove a theory is correct, can prove its incorrect)

Question 18

Variables (3 types)

Answer 18

• Independent variable: manipulated (experiemmnter decides)
• dependent variable: what is measured, not manipultaed
• extraneous variable: extra things that could influence the result of research if not controlled (sometimes gender, height, etc) not of main interest in research

Question 19

Random sample

Answer 19

everyoen has equal chance of being picked

Question 20

Stratified random sample

Answer 20

divide pop into subgroups and take reprsentitive samples

Question 21

non random sample

Answer 21

due to study contraints, not equal chance

Question 22

convience sample

Answer 22

work with you got (ex: uni students in a uni survey)

Question 23

placebo effect + clincal trials

Answer 23

fake medicine, peoples expectation for it to work actually causes symptoms (usually control group in xperiemnt)
- group 1: new drug
- group 2: placebo (control)
- group3: established drug, effect already known

Question 24

Placebo effect IRL- FIllmore and Sprott

Answer 24

• 1992
• caffeeine experiment. 4 groups
• 1. cafine in coffee will increase performance
• 2 caffeeine will slow performance
  -3. not told anything about coffee
• 4. no coffee provided

coffe was placebo (decaf) effects as described

Question 25

Validity + extraneous variables (interal/external validity)

Answer 25

- Internal validity: can results be attributed to independnt and dependent variables, not extraneous variables - external validity: will results of experiment generalise to people across all settings, across time

Question 26

Discriptive Vs inferential Stats

Answer 26

- disc: quantitive meaesure. mean, measures of central tendancy, std dev..ect - inferential: qualititaive measure. involves the use of a sample (1) analyze to estimate some characteristic in a large population; and (2) to test a research hypothesis about a given population.

Question 27

The testing effect hypothesis

Answer 27

- established to see the effetcs tests have on student retention - group 1: asked to recall information and were tested on it - group 2: not tested, asked to recall info from studying ti for a but - oens who were tested retained more

Question 28

Measures of Central Tendancy

Answer 28

- Mean Median Mode. watch for outlier - Range: highest-lowest - variability: how far apart points lie from each other and from the center of a distribution or a data set. - Standard deviation: computed meaures how much scores vary around mean

Question 29

normal distribution

Answer 29

mean=median=mode

Question 30

How to measure variance and Std dev

Answer 30

variance: 1. subtract mean from every score 2. square the numbers from 1 3. sum the numbers from 2 4. divide number from 3 over # of scores std dev: square root variance

Question 31

what does statistically significant mean

Answer 31

- does not mean the data is IMPORTANT - somewhere there is a dignificant differnece (eg. between a score and a mean, or between 2 means) - the claim that a result from data generated by testing or experimentation is likely to be attributable to a specific cause. A high degree of statistical significance indicates that an observed relationship is unlikely to be due to chance. -results are statistically significant if p <5% - results unlikely due to chance, there is a reason why - (alternative hypotheiss)

Question 32

Inferring from data using probability

Answer 32

- what is probability of something happening by chance alone - statistics and the <5% rule - if probability is less then 5% - rare (less then 1/20) - results are statistically significant if p <5% -p = probability

Question 33

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Answer 33

- 1932-1972 - african men and women recruited to particpate in study to follow syphyilis - primised meals and treatmet (did not happen) researchers misled particpants, so many unecessary deaths, womena nd children caught the disease -led to spread of syphyilis - prompted federal ethical principles and guidelines for research studies

Question 34

5 main principles of psych (APA guidlines)

Answer 34

1. principle A: benefice and nonmalice 2. Principle B: fidelity and responsibility 3. Principle C: Integrity 4. Principle D: justice 5. Principle e: Respect for peoples rights and dignity

Question 35

IRB Institutional Review Board + guidelines

Answer 35

- reviews whether study is ethical or not before starting it guidlines: - study will use sound research design - minimize risk - benifits outweigh risks - participalnts give informed consent and withdraw any time without consequences - protect well being of participants - keep data private and confiential - consent is a process`

Question 36

Items in a consent form

Answer 36

- whos is running study, influcing contact info - why is study taking place - risks and benifits - what will participants be doing - that participants can withdraw at any time - how data will be stored (anonymity and fidntiality)

Question 37

Facebook Emotional Contagion Experiment

Answer 37

- 2012 - researchers maipulted how may positive or ngative news feeds 600,000 users saw - those that saw positive posted positive - those that saw negative posted negative - its a bit of a gray ethical area, some argue its unethical, some think its fine since your data is online,b - but the people had no idea they were in the study

Question 38

Vulnerable Populations (ethical considerations)

Answer 38

1.Decisonal impairment: potential participant has diminshed cpacity to provide informed consent (childre, mental disabled) 2. situational vulerabiltly: fredom of choice to participate in research is compromised because of influecne from another source (criminals, military personal) who may feel obligated to apricpate out of fear or economically disadvantged people if there is a benfit for them.

Question 39

research shoudl consider this before recruiting vulnerable populations for studies

Answer 39

- study should be donw on participants without vulnerabilities if possible -researchers should adress needs, condiitons , priporties of vulnerable pop - individuals with addiotnal vulnerabilities both informed consent from parent guardians and ASSENT are required - for situational vulnerability, additional safeguards may be implemented

Question 40

Deception: another ethical consideration + criteria to us deception by IRB

Answer 40

- researchers may feel that informing participants of real intnt of resarch may change outcome (like if there are actors involedv in the resarch, the participoants cant know theyre fake) - witholding info during informed consent process - ethically gray area - criteria IRB: 1. research poses no more then minial risk to participants 2. deception does not effect rights and well being of participants 3. researchers must provide justification that deception is needed 4. participants should be debriefed after study, can ask questions

Question 41

Milgrams Experiment

Answer 41

- 1961 - psychologist at yale - wanted to understand hwo peopel would obey even to the point of killing - learner: was the researcher, the teacher was the recruited participant - teacher said word to studnet behind screen, studnt would reply with a word in similar - if studnt was wrong, learner would deliver shock, increasing every time there was a wrong anser (fake shock) - researcher made purposeful mistakes and yelled to be let out -experimenter there who told teacher to keep going results - 2/3 carried on to full expermeints (450 volts) even when they thought learner was DEAD - encouragemtn of expirment violated particpant dignity brough trauma and discomfort.