Anatomy and Physiology > Ch.2: Basic Chemistry > Flashcards

Ch.2: Basic Chemistry Flashcards

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1
Q

Matter

A

• Anything that occupies space and has mass
• Matter may exist as one of three states:
*Solid: definite shape and volume
*Liquid: definite volume; shape of container
*Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor volume

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2
Q

Matter may be changed:

A
  • Physically

* Chemically

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3
Q

Physically changed matter

A
  • Changes do not alter the basic nature of a substance

* Examples include changes in the state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas)

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4
Q

Chemically changed matter

A

Changes alter the chemical composition of a substance

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5
Q

Energy

A
  • The ability to do work

* Has no mass and does not take up space

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6
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy is doing work

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7
Q

Potential energy

A

Energy is inactive or stored

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8
Q

Forms of energy:

A
  • Chemical energy is stored in chemical bonds of substances
  • Electrical energy results from movement of charged particles
  • Mechanical energy is energy directly involved in moving matter
  • Radiant energy travels in waves; energy of the electromagnetic spectrum
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9
Q

Energy form conversions

A

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) traps the chemical energy of food in its bonds

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10
Q

Elements

A

Fundamental units of matter

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11
Q

96 percent of the body is made from four elements:

A
  • Oxygen (O)—most common; 65% of the body’s mass
  • Carbon (C)
  • Hydrogen (H)
  • Nitrogen (N)
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12
Q

Atoms

A
  • Building blocks of elements
  • Atoms of elements differ from one another
  • Atomic symbol is chemical shorthand for each element
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13
Q

What are the charges of the basic subatomic particles?

A
  • Protons (p+) are positively charged
  • Neutrons (n0) are uncharged or neutral
  • Electrons (e−) are negatively charged
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14
Q

Number of protons equals:

A
  • Number of electrons in an atom

* Positive and negative charges cancel each other out

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15
Q

Ions

A

Atoms that have lost or gained electrons

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16
Q

Electrons determine an atom’s:

A

Chemical behavior and bonding properties

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17
Q

To identify an element, we need to know the:

A
  • Atomic number
  • Atomic mass number
  • Atomic weight
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18
Q

Atomic number

A
  • Equal to the number of protons that the atom contains
  • Unique to atoms of a particular element
  • Indirectly tells the number of electrons in an atom
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19
Q

Atomic mass number

A

Sum of the protons and neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus

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20
Q

Atomic weight

A

Approximately equal to the mass number of the element’s most abundant isotope

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21
Q

Isotopes

A
  • Atoms that have the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons
  • Isotopes have the same atomic number but different atomic masses
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22
Q

Radioisotope

A
  • Heavy isotope of certain atoms
  • Tends to be unstable
  • Decomposes to more stable isotope
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23
Q

Radioactivity

A
  • Process of spontaneous atomic decay

* Used to tag and trace biological molecules through the body

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24
Q

Molecule

A

Two or more atoms of the same elements combined chemically

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25
Compound
Two or more atoms of different elements combined chemically to form a molecule of a compound
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Chemical reactions occur when:
Atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms
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Chemical bonds
Energy relationships involving interactions among the electrons of reacting atoms
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Electrons occupy energy levels called:
Electron shells (or energy levels)
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Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted to its:
Positive charge
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Distant electrons further from the nucleus are likely to interact with:
Other atoms
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How to fill the atom’s electrons shells:
* Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons * Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons * Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18 electrons * Subsequent shells can hold more electrons
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Bonding involves interactions only between electrons in:
* The outermost (valence) shell | * Atoms with full valence shells do not form bonds
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Rule of eights
* The key to chemical reactivity * Atoms are considered stable when their outermost (valence) shell has 8 electrons * Atoms with 8 electrons in the valence shell are considered stable and chemically inactive (inert) * The exception to this rule of eights is shell 1, which can hold only 2 electrons
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Reactive elements
* Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their outermost orbitals when fewer than 8 electrons are in the valence shell * Chemical bonding helps atoms achieve a stable valence shell
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Ionic bonds
* Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another * Allow atoms to achieve stability through the transfer of electrons
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Ions
Result from the loss or gain of electrons • Anions have negative charge due to gain of electron(s) • Cations have positive charge due to loss of electron(s) Tend to stay close together because opposite charges attract
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Covalent bonds
* Atoms become stable through shared electrons * Electrons are shared in pairs * Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons * Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons * Can be described as either nonpolar or polar
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Nonpolar covalent bonds
* Electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule * Electrically neutral as a molecule * Example: carbon dioxide
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Polar covalent bonds
* Electrons are not shared equally between the atoms of the molecule * Molecule has a positive and negative side, or pole * Example: water
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Hydrogen bonds
* Extremely weak chemical bonds * Formed when a hydrogen atom is attracted to the negative portion, such as an oxygen or nitrogen atom, of a polar molecule * Responsible for the surface tension of water * Important for forming intramolecular bonds, as in protein structure
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Synthesis reaction
* Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule * Energy is absorbed for bond formation * Underlies all anabolic (building) activities in the body
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Decomposition reaction
* Molecule is broken down into smaller molecules * Chemical energy is released * Underlies all catabolic (destructive) activities in the body
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Exchange reaction
* Involves simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions as bonds are both made and broken * Switch is made between molecule parts, and different molecules are made
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Reversibility is indicated by a:
* Double arrow * When arrows differ in length, the longer arrow indicates the more rapid reaction or major direction of progress * Most chemical reactions are reversible
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Factor: ↑ temperature
↑ the kinetic energy of the molecules, which in turn move more rapidly and collide more forcefully
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Factor: ↑ concentration of reacting particles
↑ the number of collisions because of increased numbers of reacting particles
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Factor: ↓ particle size
Smaller particles have more kinetic energy and move faster than larger ones, hence they take part in more collisions
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Factor: Presence of catalysts
↓ the amount of energy the molecules need to interact by holding the reactants in the proper positions to interact
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Inorganic compounds
* Lack carbon * Tend to be small, simple molecules * Include water, salts, and many (not all) acids and bases
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Organic compounds
* Contain carbon * All are large, covalent molecules * Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
51
What is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body?
``` • Water • Accounts for two-thirds of the body’s weight • Vital properties include: *High heat capacity *Polarity/solvent properties *Chemical reactivity *Cushioning ```
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High heat capacity
* Water absorbs and releases a large amount of heat before it changes temperature * Prevents sudden changes in body temperature
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Polarity/solvent properties
* Water is often called the “universal solvent” * Solvents are liquids or gases that dissolve smaller amounts of solutes * Solutes are solids, liquids, or gases that are dissolved or suspended by solvents * Solution forms when solutes are very tiny * Colloid forms when solutes of intermediate size form a translucent mixture
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Chemical reactivity
* Water is an important reactant in some chemical reactions * Reactions that require water are known as hydrolysis reactions * Example: water helps digest food or break down biological molecules
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Cushioning
* Water serves a protective function | * Examples: cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain from physical trauma, and amniotic fluid protects a developing fetus
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Salts
• Ionic compound • Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than O H− • Easily dissociate (break apart) into ions in the presence of water • Vital to many body functions *Example: sodium and potassium ions are essential for nerve impulses
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All salts are:
* Electrolytes | * Electrolytes are ions that conduct electrical currents
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Acids
* Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in water and release hydrogen ions (H+) * Proton (H+) donors * Strong acids ionize completely and liberate all their protons * Weak acids ionize incompletely
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Bases
* Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in water and release hydroxyl ions (O H−) * Proton (H+) acceptors
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Neutralization reaction
Type of exchange reaction in which acids and bases react to form water and a salt
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p H measures relative concentration of:
* Hydrogen (and hydroxide) ions in body fluids * p H scale is based on the number of protons in a solution * p H scale runs from 0 to 14 * Each successive change of 1 p H unit represents a tenfold change in H+ concentration
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Buffers
Chemicals that can regulate p H change
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Acidic solutions have a pH below
* 7 | * More H+ than O H−
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Basic solutions have a p H above
* 7 | * Fewer H+ than O H−
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Polymer
* Chainlike molecules made of many similar or repeating units (monomers) * Many biological molecules are polymers, such as carbohydrates and proteins
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Dehydration synthesis
* Monomers are joined to form polymers through the removal of water molecules * A hydrogen ion is removed from one monomer while a hydroxyl group is removed from the monomer it is to be joined with * Water is removed at the site where monomers join (dehydration)
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Hydrolysis
* Polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water molecules * As a water molecule is added to each bond, the bond is broken, and the monomers are released
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Carbohydrates
``` • Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen • Include sugars and starches • Classified according to size and solubility in water: *Monosaccharides *Disaccharides *Polysaccharides ```
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Monosaccharides
* Simple sugars and the structural units of the carbohydrate group * Single-chain or single-ring structures * Contain three to seven carbon atoms * Examples: glucose (blood sugar), fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
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Disaccharides
* Two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis * Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose * Too large to pass through cell membranes
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Polysaccharides
* Long, branching chains of linked simple sugars * Large, insoluble molecules * Function as storage products * Examples include starch and glycogen
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Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in:
• Other lipids • Most abundant are the triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids • Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen *Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
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Triglycerides, or neutral fats
``` • Found in fat deposits • Source of stored energy • Composed of two types of building blocks—fatty acids and one glycerol molecule *Saturated fatty acids *Unsaturated fatty acids ```
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Saturated fats (Fatty acid chains of triglycerides)
* Contain only single covalent bonds * Chains are straight * Exist as solids at room temperature since molecules pack closely together
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Unsaturated fats (Fatty acid chains of triglycerides)
* Contain one or more double covalent bonds, causing chains to kink * Exist as liquid oils at room temperature * “Heart healthy”
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Trans fats
* Oils that have been solidified by the addition of hydrogen atoms at double bond sites * Increase risk of heart disease
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Omega-3 fatty acids
* Found in cold-water fish and plant sources, including flax, pumpkin, and chia seeds; walnuts and soy foods * Appear to decrease risk of heart disease
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Phospholipids
* Contain two fatty acids chains rather than three; they are hydrophobic (“water fearing”) * Phosphorus-containing polar “head” carries an electrical charge and is hydrophilic (“water loving”) * Charged “head” region interacts with water and ions while the fatty acid chains (“tails”) do not * Form cell membranes
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Steroids
* Formed of four interlocking rings * Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones * Some cholesterol is ingested from animal products; the liver also makes cholesterol * Cholesterol is the basis for all steroids made in the body
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Proteins
* Account for over half of the body’s organic matter * Provide for construction materials for body tissues * Play a vital role in cell function * Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies * Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur * Built from building blocks called amino acids
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Amino acid structure
* Contain an amine group (N H2) * Contain an acid group (C O O H) * Vary only by R-groups
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Protein structure
* Polypeptides contain fewer than 50 amino acids * Proteins contain more than 50 amino acids * Large, complex proteins contain 50 to thousands of amino acids * Sequence of amino acids produces a variety of proteins
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Structural levels of proteins
``` • Primary structure • Secondary structure *Alpha helix *Beta-pleated sheet • Tertiary structure • Quaternary structure ```
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Primary structure
Strand of amino acid “beads”
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Secondary structure
* Chains of amino acids twist or bend * Alpha helix resembles a metal spring * Beta-pleated sheet resembles pleats of a skirt or sheet of paper folded into a fan
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Tertiary structure
Compact, ball-like (globular) structure
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Quaternary structure
Result of a combination of two or more polypeptide chains
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Fibrous (structural) proteins
* Appear in body structures * Exhibit secondary, tertiary, or even quaternary structure * Bind structures together and exist in body tissues * Stable proteins * Examples include collagen and keratin
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Globular (functional) proteins
* Function as antibodies, hormones, or enzymes * Exhibit at least tertiary structure * Hydrogen bonds are critical to the maintenance of structure * Can be denatured and no longer perform physiological roles * Active sites “fit” and interact chemically with other molecules
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Enzymes
• Act as biological catalysts • Increase the rate of chemical reactions • Bind to substrates at an active site to catalyze reactions • Can be recognized by their –ase suffix *Hydrolase *Oxidase
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Nucleic acids
* Form genes * Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms * Largest biological molecules in the body * Two major kinds are DNA and RNA
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Nucleic acids are built from building blocks called:
Nucleotides
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Nucleotides contain three parts:
* A nitrogenous base * Pentose (five-carbon) sugar * A phosphate group
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
* The genetic material found within the cell’s nucleus * Provides instructions for every protein in the body * Organized by complementary bases to form a double-stranded helix * Contains the sugar deoxyribose and the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine * Replicates before cell division
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Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
* Carries out DNA’s instructions for protein synthesis * Created from a template of DNA * Organized by complementary bases to form a single-stranded helix * Contains the sugar ribose and the bases adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine * Three varieties are messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
* Composed of a nucleotide built from ribose sugar, adenine base, and three phosphate groups * Chemical energy used by all cells * Energy is released by breaking high-energy phosphate bond
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ADP (adenosine diphosphate) accumulates as ATP is used for:
Energy
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A T P is replenished by oxidation of:
Food fuels
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