Define the term goal.
- Something that you are taking active steps to achieve
What are 4 important aspects of a goal?
1) Goals are cognitive representations
–> Thoughts that drive us to behave
–> Organized in a hierarchical manner
–> They should work in an automatic way
2) Goals are future focused
–> Future image guiding present behaviour (roadmap)
3) People must be committed to their goals
–> You have to believe it can be realistically achieved
–> Have to be ready and wiling to put in effort
4) Goals can be either approach or avoidance based
–> Approach: Achieving positive outcomes
–> Avoidance: Avoiding negative outcomes
Why are goals important?
- They tend to enhance performance
–> Sets a clear purpose, allowing for better focus, effort and success - People who adopt goals outperform those who do not adopt goals
Why do goals improve performance?
- Goals direct attention toward goal-relevant information and actions
- Goals produce psychological benefits
–> People with goals demonstrate greater positive psychological functioning and greater life satisfaction
True or false: Goals produce psychological benefits, whether achieved or not.
True: In fact, sometimes we feel happier when we are making good progress on our goal than when we actually achieve the goal
→ “the journey is more important than the destination”
What are the 3 factors that influence people’s decisions to adopt a particular goal? (i.e., where do goals come from?)
1) Needs: People’s internal sources of pressure push them toward a goal
–> Psychological or physiological
–> ABCs serve as a motive to set a goal
2) Demands: External sources of pressure from environment
3) Culture: Values regarding family, religion, success, etc.
Give an example of Needs, in relation to the 3 psychological needs as motive to set a goal.
Goal to learn french when studying abroad in France.
Autonomy: Helps you feel in control and prepared to study
Belonging: Help you feel a part of the group with other students
Competence: Helps you feel more competent in your studies
Give an example of Demands, in relation to the 3 psychological needs as motive to set a goal.
- Expectations from family, manager, government, etc.
___ are people’s internal sources of pressures that push them toward a goal; while ___ are people’s external sources of pressure.
Needs; demands
How are goals structured? Explain this system.
- We organize them into a goal hierarchy, from broad and abstract goals to specific goal actions
- There are 3 levels, with the more proximal (short term) aspects at the bottom of the pyramid, and the more distal (long term) aspects at the top
1) Goal means at the bottom
2) Goals
3) Higher-order goals
–> You need to achieve the bottom and middle before reaching the to
Give an example of a goal hierarchy.
1) Higher-order goals: Get a good job
2): Goals: Perform well in courses
–> create.a resume, get an internship
3) Goal means: To perform well, must study for exams, attend lectures, search for internships, write resume, get feedback
True or false: Goals are often interconnected within a larger system.
True: This is the goal systems theory
Explain the equifinality of goals.
- There are multiple ways to achieve on singular goal; multiple means housed underneath the same goal are also interconnected
- When multiple goals are housed underneath the same higher-order goal, we would expect these goals to be interconnected, such that thinking about one of these goals will lead to thoughts about the other goals
–> there isn’t just one single mean or action to achieve the goal
What is the difference between goals with high equifinality and goals with low equifinality?
High: Multiple means to achieve a goal, thus more paths to achievement
–> As a result, they are more likely to result in goal success because they are flexible
Low: Very few means to achieve a goal, maybe even just a single mean
Give an example of a goal with high equifinality.
If you are trying to increase physical activity and you’re strapped on cash, then attending the gym 3x per week would likely not be an option; However, since there are other means to achieve this goal (e.g., daily walks, running, bodyweight workouts from home), you can still pursue it
→ Thus, when a particular means is shut down, another means can be substituted in its place, so long as the goal is high in equifinality
What is the dilemma for goals with high equifinality?
- If there are multiple ways to pursue a goal, the individual must choose between several different means
–> This may be overwhelming, and the person may simply not choose one and not achieve the goal
How does multifinality play its role in goal achievement?
- refers to the distinction that means vary in the number of different goals that they serve; one action that can achieve multiple goals
- When presented with the dilemma caused by high equifinality, we use multifinality to help make the decision
What does the expectancy-value theory explain?
- According to this theory, behaviour results from the joint function of two factors: expectancy and value
- people are more likely to pursue a goal when expectancy and value are high and less likely when expectancy and value are low; furthermore, these two elements are thought to combine in a multiplicative way, meaning that
→ Behaviour = expectancy x value
→ the multiplication thus shows that if either expectancy or value are at 0, then the behaviour will also be at 0 – you need both
Give an example of how expectancy and value theory may affect course decision.
→ p.ex: a student doesn’t enroll in a course if they expect to do poorly, even if they value the subject
→ p.ex: a student doesn’t enroll in a course if they expect to do well, but the course would not count for their degree
True or false: Motivation is highest when both expectancy and value are low.
False: It is highest when expectancy and value are high as well.
True or false: Expectancy and value are subjective assessments.
True: p.ex: some students may perceive the likelihood of earning a 10.0 GPA as high, whereas others may judge the likelihood to be low
What can influence a person’s expectancy estimates?
→ perceived capability to perform goal-directed behaviors (i.e., self- efficacy)
→ belief that these behaviors will result in goal achievement (i.e., outcome expectations), or general beliefs that good outcomes will occur (i.e., optimism)
What can influence a person’s value estimates?
→ When the benefits of achieving a goal outweigh the costs of pursuing the goal, the value is judged to be high
→ it really depends on the subjective perception of cost vs. benefits
Are people more likely to achieve easy or harder goals? Give an example demonstrating this.
- Although difficult goals are harder to achieve, they are usually associated with better performance, thus people are more likely to achieve harder goals
→ Assume that there are two realtors trying to sell houses. Realtor A sets a difficult goal of trying to sell 12 houses a month. Realtor B sets an easy goal of trying to sell 2 houses per month. Realtor A will likely exert a lot of effort whereas Realtor B will likely stop after selling 2 houses. Thus, even if Realtor A only sells 6 houses per month, that is still 3X as many as Realtor B!
