Brain Bee/Brain Facts > Chapter 1: Brain Basics > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Brain Basics Flashcards

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1
Q

The largest part of the human brain

A

Cerebrum

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2
Q

The largest of the bundles of nerve fibers that forms a bridge between the cerebral hemispheres

A

Corpus callosum

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3
Q

A deeply folded layer of nerve tissue that makes up the surface of the cerebrum

A

Cerebral cortex

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4
Q

At the front of the brain; coordinates voluntary movements and speech, memory and emotion, higher cognitive skills, like planning and problem-solving, and many aspects of personality

A

Frontal lobes

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5
Q

At the top of the brain; integrates sensory signals from the skin, processes taste, and processes some types of visual information

A

Parietal lobes

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6
Q

At the back of the brain; processes visual information and are responsible for recognizing colors and shapes and integrating them into complex visual understanding

A

Occipital lobes

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7
Q

At the sides of the brain; carry out some visual processing and interprets auditory information

A

Temporal lobes

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8
Q

Consists of curved structures beneath the cerebral cortex; a region of the temporal lobes that encodes new memories

A

Hippocampus

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9
Q

A deep structure within each temporal lobe that integrates memory and emotion

A

Amygdala

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10
Q

Integrates sensory information and relays it to other parts of the brain

A

Thalamus

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11
Q

Sends hormonal signals to the rest of the body through the pituitary gland

A

Hypothalamus

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12
Q

A group of structures deep within the brain that help regulate our emotion and motivation and is part of the forebrain

A

Limbic system

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13
Q

Sits beneath the thalamus; coordinates eye movements, triggers reflexes to sounds, inhibits unwanted body movements, and coordinates sensory input and motor output for motor control

A

Midbrain

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14
Q

A collection of structures that helps regulate complex body movements

A

Basal ganglia

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15
Q

Plays a role in glucose regulation, sleep, and helps control movement

A

Hindbrain

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16
Q

Containing over half the brain’s neurons; at the back of the brain, beneath the occipital lobe

A

Cerebellum

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17
Q

Coordinates voluntary movements and helps the brain learn new motor skills; has roles in spatial and temporal perception

A

Cerebellum

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18
Q

A patient with cerebellar damage might have . . .

A

A jerky, arrhythmic gait or might inaccurately touch their finger to their nose

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19
Q

A structure below the cerebellum that influences breathing and posture

A

Pons

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20
Q

A part of the hindbrain that carries nerve pathways connecting the brain to the spinal cord and contains neural networks that help control basic functions

A

Medulla

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21
Q

The midbrain, pons, and medulla make up the . . .

A

Brain stem

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22
Q

In early vertebrates, the “brain” end of the nerve cord developed how many distinct bulges and what did they become?

A

Three; forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

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23
Q

Distinct bundles formed by nerve fibers of region-spanning neurons

A

Nerve tracts

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24
Q

Example of a nerve tract

A

The smaller anterior commissure that transmits signals between the left and right temporal lobes; the corpus callosum

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25
A group of nerve tracts connecting a series of regions in the brain
Neural network
26
Route signals through the brain along a linear pathway, analyzing and organizing different types of organization
Neural network
27
What is a two-way circuit that connects the thalamus with parts of the cortex and back>
"Thalamus amocortical loop"
28
What can detect rhythmic, oscillating, electrical patterns produced as neuronal signals loop through the thalamus and cortex?
Electroencephalograph
29
Awake brain typically produces what type of brain waves?
Alpha and beta waves
30
Where do alpha waves mainly originate from?
The occipital and parietal lobes
31
What are the frequencies of alpha waves?
8 to 13 Hz
32
What are the frequencies of beta waves?
14 to 30 Hz
33
Where do beta waves mainly originate from?
The frontal and parietal lobes
34
What waves are produced during sleep?
Theta and delta waves
35
What are the frequencies of theta waves?
4 to 7 Hz
36
What are the frequencies of delta waves?
Less than 3.5 Hz
37
When brain waves are measured with electrodes on the scalp what are their frequencies?
Alpha and delta waves - 20 to 200 microvolts; beta and theta waves - 5 to 10 microvolts
38
Chains of neurons that pass signals through the brain stem and the spinal cord
Spinal tract
39
How do brain signals travel through the body?
Upwards from skin and muscle receptors to the thalamus and cortex; downwards from brain regions that induce movement to the spinal cord
40
Part of a feedback loop that takes information from cortical areas that elicit movement and produces signals that feed back to the cortex to excite or inhibit specific movement
Basal ganglia
41
Circuits eliciting action well before thoughts
Reflex loops
42
Interconnected neurons that turn entering signals into output patterns that can be sent to other parts of the brain
Neural circuits
43
Circuits are arranged in _______, as each neuron forms connections with cells in the layers above and below.
Columns
44
The majority of neurons in your brain, about 80 percent of them are?
Excitatory
45
What do excitatory neurons do?
Sending signals that push their neighbors toward firing
46
What is the most common type of excitatory neurons?
Pyramidal cells
47
Where are the two sets of dendrites of excitatory neurons?
One set is at the apex of the neuron and the other is at the base.sf
48
What do inhibitory neurons do?
Send signals that supresses the activity of neighboring neurons and regulate the activity of a circuit
49
What could seizure disorders like epilepsy be caused by?
By imbalances in the activity of excitatory and inhibitory neurons
50
What is the functional unit of neural circuits and networks?
Neuron
51
What are three primary components of a neuron?
Soma, dendrites, and an axon
52
What do dendrites do?
They are branched projections that extend from the cell body and collect incoming signals from other neurons
53
The neuron’s electrical signals travel down a neuron's what?
Axon
54
What are axon terminals?
It is where the signal is passed across a synapse to other cells
55
Scientists have longed believed glia outnumber neurons by what?
10:1
56
What are the four main types of glial cells?
Astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes
57
What do astrocytes do?
Form a network inside the brain that regulates ion concentrations around neurons, provides them with nutrients, and helps regulate the formation of new connections between neurons
58
What do microglia do?
Help protect the brain from infections and cellular damage as phagocytes; regulates the formation of new neuronal connections
59
What do ependymal cells do?
Produce the cerebrospinal fluid that cushions the brain inside the skull
60
What do oligodendrocytes do?
Improve neuron function by wrapping axons in a fatty sheath called myelin
61
What are ions and how can they pass through the neuronal membrane?
Ions are electrically charged atoms that pass by using ion channels
62
Voltage difference across the neuronal membrane influences what?
The neuron's likelihood of generating an electrical signal
63
In mammals, the voltage difference across the membrane of a resting neuron is what?
Around -70 millivolts
64
Signals arriving from other neurons in its circuit can either make the membrane potential what?
More depolarized (less negative) or more hyperpolarized (more negative) by opening ion channels in dendrites
65
If the sum of all the signals at the dendrites rises to match the membrane’s threshold voltage what happens?
A series of voltage-sensitive ion channels opens automatically, triggering an action potential
66
Signals are passed from one neuron to the next at junctions called what?
Synapses
67
What are the three parts of a synapse?
The end of an axon, the dendrite of a neighboring neuron, and a synaptic cleft in between
68
Electrical signals cannot directly impact the next neuron, so chemical signals called what cross the synapse?
Neurotransmitters
69
The voltage change triggers ion channels in the membrane to open, which lets what flow into the cell?
Calcium ions
70
Calcium ions bind to packages of neurotransmitter molecules called what?
Synaptic vesicles
71
Neurons can synthesize small non-peptides like what inside their axon terminal, but not proteins
Dopamine and acetylcholine
72
Since axon terminals cannot synthesize proteins . . .
Peptide-based neurotransmitters are built in the ribosome-rich space of the soma
73
Receptors are linked to ion channels in such a way that . . .
when neurotransmitter molecules dock on their receptors, they open those channels, altering the voltage across the postsynaptic membrane
74
Astrocytes mop up any excess neurotransmitters preventing them from . . .
Continuously activating receptors
74
Once neurotransmitters reach the outer surface of the receiving dendrite called what?
Postsynaptic density, which has a high concentration of receptors
75
What are the two types of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane?
Ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
76
What happens with an ionotropic receptor?
The neurotransmitter binds directly to part of an ion channel
77
What happens with a metabotropic receptor?
The receptor and the ion channel are different proteins located at a distance from one another, but they are linked by a cascade of biochemical steps that are triggered when a neurotransmitter binds to the receptor.
78
The neurotransmitters are either broken down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal in a process
Reuptake
79
Excitatory neurons make neurotransmitters that open ion channels
That depolarize the postsynaptic membrane
80
Inhibitory neurons make neurotransmitters that open ion channels
That hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane
81
What is the brain's most common excitatory neurotransmitter?
Glutamate
82
What is the brain's most common inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
83
What is glutamate?
An amino acid used as a neurotransmitter by approximately half the excitatory synapses in the brain
84
What ionotropic receptors can glutamate bind to?
AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors
85
When activated, AMPA receptors are ____, while NMDA receptors are ____, in response to waves of multiple action potential
Fast and brief; slow
86
GABA binds to how many groups of receptors?
Two groups; one is ionotropic, the other is metabotropic
87
What do ionotropic GABA receptors do?
They have ion channels that let negatively charged chloride ions enter the cell
88
What do metabotropic GABA receptors do?
They open ion channels that release potassium ions
89
What do hormones do?
They send the brain specific cues about the condition and activity of distant tissues in the body
90
What do neuromodulators such as the endo-cannabinoids, cannabis-like chemicals do?
They supress neurotransmitter release
91
What are prostaglandins?
Small lipids that change the brain’s response (increasing pain sensitivity) to pain and inflammation
91
Expressed genes are associated with ___ and unexpressed genes are associated with ___
Open and unfolded chromatin; tightly packed regions of chromatin
92
Chemical changes that tighten or spread out chromatin complexes can respectively what?
Shut down or activate the genes on a specific segment of DNA
93
What causes Tay-Sachs disease?
Mutations in a gene that codes for part of a fat-metabolizing enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A, which is bad at breaking down specific fats, which build up in neurons and cause them to be toxic
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