Chapter 1 - Introduction

Question 1

Anatomy and Physiology

Answer 1

the branch of science dealing with the form and organization of body parts
- Examines structures/morphology

the study of body functions

Question 2

Levels of Organization

Answer 2

1. Subatomic particles
   
   2. Atoms
   3. Molecules
   4. macromolecule
   5. Organelle
   6. Cell
   7. Tissues
   8. Organs
   9. Organ system
      
      10. Organism

Question 3

Ultrasound

Answer 3

high frequency sound waves that provide images of soft internal structures

Question 4

MRI

Answer 4

magnetic field changes alignment and spin of certain types of atoms: provides high resolution images of internal structures

Question 5

Pressure and Concentration Gradients

Answer 5

• Pressure gradient: movement of liquids and gases from areas of high pressure to low pressure
  • Concentration Gradient: movement of substances from areas of high concentration to lower concentration

Question 6

Characteristics of Life

Answer 6

1. Responsiveness: internally or externally
   
   2. Growth: increases in cell number or size
   3. Reproduction: producing new cells or new organisms
   4. Metabolism: the sum of all chemical reactions
      a. Respiration: cellular respiration or oxygen exchange
      b. Digestion: breaking down food into nutrients
      c. Circulation: moving chemicals and cells throughout the body
      d. Excretion: removal of wastes
      
      5. Movement: change of body position or movement of internal organs

Question 7

Requirements of Organisms

Answer 7

a. Water: environment for metabolism, transports substances, regulates internal temperatures
b. Food: provides necessary nutrient to supply energy and supplies materials for tissue synthesis
c. Oxygen: to produce ATP from the release of energy from food
2. Heat: used as a form of energy, helps metabolize reactions
3. Pressure: an application of force to something
- Atmospheric pressure: important for breathing
Hydrostatic pressure: keeps blood flowing

Question 8

Homeostatic Mechanisms

Answer 8

self-regulating systems that monitor internal environments and correct them as needed

Question 9

Parts of Homeostatic Mechanisms

Answer 9

1. Receptors: provide information on stimuli in the internal environment
   
   2. Control center: has a target value(set point) of a physiological measure and aims to maintain it
      
      3. Effectors: the muscles or glands which cause appropriate responses to return conditions to homeostatic conditions

Question 10

Negative Feedback

Answer 10

negative feedback: as it is reverses the deviation from set point by increasing effector response

Question 11

Positive Feedback

Answer 11

the increasing in deviation from the set point by increasing effector response, creating unstable conditions until a crisis moment
- E.g. when there is an open wound, Blood Clotting is stimulated to prevent bleeding out

Question 12

Portions of the Body

Answer 12

Axial portion: neck, head, trunk

appendicular portion: bones that are attached to the axial skeleton(upper and lower limbs)

Question 13

Cavities in the Axial Portion

Answer 13

Ventral Cavity: holds the cranial, thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity

Dorsal Cavity: Holds vertebral cavity

- Cranial cavity: space in the cranium housing the brain

- Vertebral canal(spinal cavity): space in the spine surrounded by vertebrae which holds the spinal cord
	- Found in the Dorsal Cavity
	
- Thoracic cavity: space containing organs in the upper trunk
- Medistinum: pleura
- Pleura cavity

Abdominopelvic cavity: space between diaphragm and pelvic outlet which contains abdominals and pelvic viscera(organs)

Question 14

Diaphragm

Answer 14

a sheetlike structure of skeletal muscle and connective tissue which separates the abdominopelvic cavity from the thoracic cavity
- Its a muscle which presses down during inhalation and curves upward when at rest

Question 15

Mediastinum

Answer 15

the region in the thoracic cavity between the lungs extending forward to the sternum and backwards to the vertebral column
- Contains most of the thoracic cavity viscera except lungs

Question 16

Viscera within Thoracic Cavity

Answer 16

heart, esophagus, trachea and thymus and lungs

Question 17

7 Viscera within Abdominal Cavity

Answer 17

stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys and small& large intestines

Question 18

Viscera within Pelvic Cavity

Answer 18

terminal end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs

Question 19

Cavities in the Head

Answer 19

• Oral Cavity: containing the teeth and tongue
  
  • Nasal Cavity: connecting with several air filled sinuses
  • Orbital Cavity: containing the eyes and associated skeletal muscles and nerves
    
    • Tympanic cavities: contains the middle ear bones

Question 20

Serous Membranes

Answer 20

membrane/connective tissue which lines a cavity without an opening to the outside of the body and covers the organs
- Needed to cover organs such as the heart and lungs to prevent wear and tear and abrasions from the movement of organs against cavity walls
-

Question 21

Layers of serous membranes:

Answer 21

• Parietal layer: layer of membrane covering the wall of a cavity
  - Visceral layer: layer of membrane covering an organ
  - Gap: Serous fluid fills the gap of the cavities between visceral and parietal layers

Question 22

Pleural Membrane

Answer 22

the serous membranes that line the thoracic cavity and fold back to cover the lungs which allows the lungs to not get friction as they slide against cavity wall during respiration

Question 23

Pericardial

Answer 23

the serous membrane which lines the mediastinum and folds back to cover the heart
- has a a thicker third layer of membrane which covers the parietal pericardium: Fibrous Pericardium

Question 24

Peritoneal Membrane

Answer 24

the connective tissue lining the abdominopelvic cavities and folding back to cover the organs

Question 25

Lesser Omentum

Answer 25

double layer of peritoneum connecting liver to the stomach and duodenum

Question 26

Greater Omentum

Answer 26

large fold of tissue which hangs from the stomach and covers the abdominal viscera

Question 27

Mesentary of Small Intestine

Answer 27

a fold of peritoneal membrane which attaches the small intestine to the abdominal wall to keep it in place

Question 28

Integumentary System

Answer 28

including the skin and accessory organs such as hair, nails, sweat glands and sebaceous glands which help to regulate body temperature, house sensory receptors and synthesize certain products such as production of vitamin D

Question 29

Skeletal System

Answer 29

consist of the bones, ligaments and cartilage which provide the framework and protective shields for softer tissues to act. - Tissues within bones also produce blood cells in red bone marrow and store inorganics salts

Question 30

Muscular System

Answer 30

comprised of the muscles which contract and pull their ends closer together to provide force to move body parts, maintain posture and source body heat

Question 31

Nervous System

Answer 31

consisting of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs which transmit electrochemical signals to initiate movement for rapid short term effects

Question 32

Endocrine System

Answer 32

Includes the glands which secrete hormones for long lasting effects such as the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland and thymus

Question 33

Cardiovascular System

Answer 33

includes the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins and blood which pumps blood throughout the body to carry nutrients, hormones and remove wastes.

Question 34

Lymphatic System

Answer 34

composed of lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph nodes, the thymus and spleen which transports interstitial fluid from spaces in tissues back to the bloodstream, defends against pathogens and carries fat into the blood

Question 35

Interstitial Fluid

Answer 35

bodily fluids surrounding cells and tissues which is produced through the exchange of blood across capillaries

Question 36

Digestive System

Answer 36

comprised of the mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas and both intestines which receive foods and break them down into simpler molecules so they can be absorbed

Question 37

Respiratory System

Answer 37

comprised of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs which all move air in and out of the body and exchange gases in the blood

Question 38

Urinary System

Answer 38

consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra which remove wastes from the blood and excrete them while maintaining the bodies water and electrolyte concentration

Question 39

Reproductive System

Answer 39

the production of a whole new organism or cells - Male system includes scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra and penis - Female system includes ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris and vulva

Question 40

Ageing

Answer 40

the changes in the body that occur within a passage of time - Changes at the tissue level cause organ level signs of aging - Biochemical changes can also fuel cellular aging

Question 41

Examples of Ageing:

Answer 41

- Decreased production of collagen and elastin account for the stiffening of skin - Abeta amyloid proteins build up in the brain resulting in the development of Alzheimer's

Question 42

Anatomical Position

Answer 42

standing erect, face forward and upper limbs by sides with palms facing anteriorly

Question 43

Acromial Antecubital Antebrachial Axillary Brachial

Answer 43

Shoulder front of elbow forearm Armpit Arm

Question 44

Buccal Calcaneal Celiac Cephalic Costal Coxal

Answer 44

Cheek heel abdomen Head Ribs Hip

Question 45

Crural cubital frontal mammary mental Occipital

Answer 45

lower leg elbow forehead breast chin inferior back of head

Question 46

Otic pedal popliteal sacral sural

Answer 46

ear foot behind knee posterior between hip bones Calf