1
Q
Question
A
Ask whether a relationship exists between variables in a particular population
2
Q
Hypothesis
A
- predicts that a relationship between at least two people exists
- advantage is it can be put in a question in a form that can be testes
- however it can also contradict the original statement
3
Q
PICOT scaffold
A
Population of interest Issue of interest Comparison between variables to be researched Outcome of the comparison Time
4
Q
Sampling
A
- appropriate sample group, method and size
- need to pick a large group of people for research but is often impossible due to limited time, money or even access to people
- by choosing a smaller sample group, we hope that findings can be extended to the entire group
5
Q
Random sample
A
Involves selecting people so that everyone has an equal chance of being selected
Example: weekly Oz lotto draw is a random sample as every number has an equal chance of being selected
6
Q
Systematic random sample
A
Obtained by choosing one number at random and then every nth number after this random start
Example: by randomly selecting a 2 and the 3 is your n number, you could choose a house and then select every 3rd house after that in your street
7
Q
Stratified random sample
A
Involves a process where the population is divided into strata (layer) groups and then random selection occurs within each strata making a balanced representation of each strata group and the groups can be compared with each other in similar proportions to the general population
Examples: boys and girls, children and adults, family structures, primary students and secondary students
8
Q
Cluster sample
A
Involves dividing the population into clusters and random selection is made within the clusters. A researcher using this method doesn’t need to choose a specific part of the population to take their sample from
Example: clusters of school rolls and 4 roll call groups are selected at random and 5 people from each group are selected
9
Q
Convenience sample
A
Occurs when a researcher selects people because they are easily located. These results have the lowest credibility as they can be biased and not represent the population.
Examples: friends in a year 12 group or family members
10
Q
Sample group
A
You can identify or decide where a sample group is to be chosen from or where the list is to draw the sample from
Examples:
- people from your neighbourhood
- specific community organisations like a child care centre
11
Q
Sample size
A
- refers to the number of people selected for the research study
- nature for the research proposal will indicate what is appropriate
- suitable sample size for IRP is 20-30 people and 2 interviews, case study or three observations
- method chosen should be documented in your research so that any indication of bias can be acknowledged
necessary that it suits the:
- purpose of the research project
- resources available
- questions asked
- limitations you may have
12
Q
Primary data
A
- original
- questiond asked will provide data necessary for their purpose of research study
- tends to be expensive to conduct and takes a long time to process
Collected firsthand from individuals or groups who were:
- questioned
- surveyed
- interviewed
- observed
13
Q
Secondary data
A
- based on the findings of other people’s research
- tends to be readily available, less expensive and can be analysed in less time
- however, due to the different purpose, the results may not answer your question
Found in:
- reports
- records
- statistical information gathered and recorded by someone
14
Q
Qualitative data
A
Subjective data that come from research that collects facts and information regarding people’s beliefs, feelings, attitudes and opiniond to gain insight to the area
- can provide words and images
- helps us understand “why” and “how”
- gives examples to fill in details
- observations, interviews, focus groups and case studies
15
Q
Quantitative data
A
Objective data that come from research that collects facts in the form of numerical data which can then be analysed using counting, measuring and graphing
- can provide a good outline of “what”
- more objective and reliable
- subject to less bias than qualitative data
- questionnaires, surveys and experiments
16
Q
Individuals and groups
A
- provides data that is current and in real time
- individuals can be:
- teachers
- family members
- friends
- neighbours
- experts or specialists in particular areas (doctors, dietitians, managers)
Groups can be:
- professional organisations (business)
- government agencies (Centrelink)
- not for profit groups (salvation army)
- specialist groups (sport associations)
- medical and health authorities (area health services)
17
Q
Print and digital
A
Adds depth and detail to the research process that wouldn't be possible individually and it is possible to access global data that is far-reaching in scope and content Print sources: - books - journals - magazines - newspapers - pamphlets
Digital sources:
- internet
- computer programs
- tv / radio
18
Q
Cheching authority for print and digital sources
A
- what are the author’s credentials?
- is the information published by a reputable authority? Are the sources properly cited?
- does the URL look acceptable
19
Q
Checking accuracy for print and digital sources
A
- is the text well written, without spelling and punctuation errors?
- is the information accurate? Accuracy can be reinforced if a source is similar to other sources
20
Q
Checking currency for print and digital sources
A
- when was the source published?
- is it up to date?
- there should always be dates lised. Check the date of publication, the date of the last update, and the date the research or statistics were gathered
21
Q
Checking purpose for print and digital sources
A
- what is the purpose of the information?
- is it subjective or factual?
- does it state an opinion or try to influence?
- who is the intended audience (scholars, researchers, the general public)?
22
Q
Checking relevance for print and digital sources
A
- is the information related to you?
- does it provide you with further information?
23
Q
Reliability
A
- research could be used again and again under the same conditions with the same subjects and you would expect similar results
- important to remember reliability isn’t measured, it is estimated
24
Q
Validity
A
- research should be based on a suitable research methodology
- undertaken so that the results can be interpretated with a reasonable degree of certainty
- provides some useful generalisations
Validity can be maintained by:
- completing sufficient reading of secondary data so that you are reasonably knowledgable on your topic and will therefore not rely on biased judgements
- a good understanding of research methods
- more than one research method in your data collection
25
Ethical behaviour
Respect
Integrity
Privacy
Bias
26
Respect
- plan questions that are worded carefully so it isn't too personal and doesn't offend
- be aware of the physical, emotional and social wellbeing of participants
- make sure that you have voluntary participation and informed written or verbal consent
- participant must be made aware of the nature of the study and what is involved
- offer the opportunity for the participant to see the final report and its findings
27
Integrity
- research must be honest and truthful
- can't change, modify or alter information to suit the question
- data should be presented without bias or distortion and if there is bias or subjectivity, it should be mentioned with the interpretation or analysis of data
28
Privacy
- right to privacy is a paramount consideration in relation to research ethics
29
Maintaining privacy
Privacy can be protected and anonymity can be assured by:
- asking for permission prior to carrying out any primary research or recording any data using equipment like a camera
- selecting numbers or letters to label research responses so that participantd cannot be identified because of their responses
- ensuring that data and opinions are not revealed to others
- processing raw data so that collective information is included in reports
- carefully storing data during the research process and then shredding data prior to disposal
30
Bias
Can occur when the researcher or data are influenced in favour of one point of view or angle:
Examples are:
- asking leading questions (why do you prefer...?)
- choosing a sampling method that does not reflect the age, gender or culture of the population (distributing questionnaires to three males and fifteen females)
- recording data that supports your hypothesis rather than being objective (omitting data and choosing certain data to analyse)
31
Questionnaires
- gathers information from people using a planned series of questions
- provides useful data
- inexpensive and easy to use
- oral or written
Uses:
- obtains info on people's attitudes, opinions and behaviours
- easy analysis
- can be distributed to large population
32
Structured interviews
- formal with questions easier to compare responses
- researcher poses questions along with expected answers
- questions asked in order
Use:
- accurate collection of quantitative data
- information is gathered more quickly
- does not need an expert at the topic
33
Unstructured interviews
- informal, like a conversation (no set format)
- respondents can express themselves more openly through discussion of topic areas
- interviewer needs to have good understanding of the topic
Use:
- gathers personal opinions and valuable information
34
Case studies
- detailed investigation of one issue on a person, event, community group or institution
- study of real life situation
- can be subjective
Use:
- examines as many aspects of a person/s or event
- discovers how they are unique or different from what is normal and expected
35
Observations
- watching and recording what is seen
- can gain knowledge about other members and requires a lot of preparation
Participant observation:
- the researcher is a part of the group and observing from within
- can be subjective, bias
Non-participant observation:
- observing the group without participating
- objective and easier to observe what is seen
36
Literature reviews
- examination of existing research that has been conducted on a particular topic or issue
- involves looking at secondary sources that has already been written about an issue
- used to gain an in-depth understanding of the topic prior to conducting own primary research
37
Formulating a research proposal
- brainstorming ideas ad having discussions is possibly the best way to come up with an idea
- think about:
- areas of possible interest and/or vocational interest
- resources that are accessible and available to you
- when you are happy with your idea keep refining it until you have a final question, hypothesis or problem statement (refer to PICOT scaffold)
38
Managing resources
- establish a system that suits you
- time management is essential
- keep your data organised with a display folder, small exercise book, USB and document storage folders
- can record information on smart phones or tablet apps
- remember to back up your file in case it crashes
39
Accessing sources of data
- search secondary data for information already gathered on your chosen topic
- look at both print and digital data
- use libraries and literature reviews
Good literature reviews have:
- organised points into issues or themes that relate to research proposal
- demonstrates that the student has done background reading to familiarise them with thier chosen topic
- provides a context for previous research and frameworks what new information can be gathered
- after reading ask yourself what you learned and how it fits with your topic
40
Collecting and recording data
- most important source is primary data
- forms foundation for primary data
- needs to be prepared, distributed and collected in a logical, thoughtful and systematic manner
- depending on the research method, you have to:
Create a draft set of questions, pilot (test run) the method and evaluate its effectiveness, refine the draft questions, print interview questions or questionnaires so they are ready to use, organise equipment, arrange for individuals or groups to be interviewed or surveyed and collect the data
41
Questionnaires and surveys (collecting and recording data)
- important to inform the respondent about the nature and purpose of the survey and note that the data collected will be confidential
- information may be stated verbally to the respondent at the beginning of an interview, written at the beginning of a questionnaire or included in a covering letter
- spending time on writing good questions is essential
It is important to have questions that are easy to understand, use clear/simple language, avoid introducing bias by using emotive or descriptive words, ask only one question at a time, listed in a logical order, begin with easy questions to put people at ease, have a clear layout with recommended space, certain amount of questions (10) and use a variety if questions (open, closed, ticker boxes, likert scales)
42
Interviews (collecting and recording data)
- involve personal contact with the respondent
- may be face-to-face, via email or over the phone
- may be a good idea to record the interview with prior permission
- or make notes during the interview on a pre-formatted document and be prepared to follow this up with a report immediately afterwards
- helps create a relaxed atmosphere making the respondent more comfortable and provide valuable answers
- begin the interview by identifying yourself and explaining the purpose of your interview and how the data will be used
43
Observations (collecting and recording data)
To ensure that you are prepared for an observation, you need to consider:
- when and where the observation is to take place
- how it is to be planned
- whether you will be a part of the group or just the observer
- think about what results you expect to see and design a format for recording this evidence (you can use a sociogram or a tally sheet)
- can also be recorded using a digital video recorder or smart phone after receiving permission
44
Case studies (collecting and recording data)
- provides a narrative of a particular individual, family, group or situation
- developing a case study requires the use of multiple sources of information such as interviews and observations that can be collected on more than one occasion to ensure a detailed profile on one issue can be provided
- useful in achieving a deep analysis of a situation and answering the "how" and "why" questions in research rather than "who", "what" and "when"
45
Documenting actions and issues
- writing in your project diary
- record of the steps taken during the development of the IRP
- diary should clearly indicate the kind of work done at school, in the library or outside school hours
- may be asked to show progress at regular intervals
- should have one or two entries each week outlining what you have done or intend to do towards completing your work for that week
- what goes in the diary (outline of the project progress, description of sources of data, description of methods used to collect secondary anf primary data, personal opinions and comments, problems you have had with parts of your project and how you solved them and the decisions you make)
46
Presenting research findings
- can be qualitative or quantitive data
- quantiative data is in numerical form
- can be counted and presenter in bar, pie or line graphs or in a table with statistics or percentages so valid comparisons can be done
- qualitative data is descriptive and often can not be reduced to numerical form
- often presented as a written report that describes the main ideas and trends that emerged from the research and included quotes and anecdotes
47
Analysing research results
- all of your information including the literature review should be included in the analysis
- need to really know your results
- in order to interpret research findings, you need to analyse them (describe what you see in the evidence)
- ask questions like what was the most common response, were there any similarities/differences, what did I find compared to what I expected)
- make comparisons that relate to your hypothesis, question or problem statement
48
Drawing conclusions from research
- draw conclusions in relation to your original research question, problem statement or hypothesis
- before you write this section, read through the whole project and make notes on key points that your data shows and place them in a logical order
- in your conclusion, write a summary that states clearly and briefly:
- what your data shows
- how this relates to your research in general
- the validity of your findings
- possible implications and recommendations from your findings
49
The purpose of research
- attempts to answer questions (what, when, where, why, how)
- provides opportunities to find out new information and increase our knowledge and understanding of a topic, phenomena or experience
Example: a research project may involve collecting data and reporting on the crime rates on different cities
CAFS
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