chapter 10

Question 1

Motivation (definition)

Answer 1

Internal processes that initiate, sustain, and direct behavior toward goals; example: studying to earn a degree.

Question 2

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 2

Driven by external rewards or pressures (money, grades); example: working a job for pay.

Question 3

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 3

Driven by internal satisfaction or interest; example: reading for enjoyment.

Question 4

Drive theory (basic idea)

Answer 4

Physiological needs create drives (arousal) that push behavior to reduce deficits and restore homeostasis; example: eating to reduce hunger.

Question 5

Homeostasis

Answer 5

Bodily equilibrium maintained by physiological processes; example: body temperature regulation.

Question 6

Incentive theory

Answer 6

Behavior is motivated by external rewards (pull) rather than internal needs (push); example: studying because of promised bonus.

Question 7

Arousal theory

Answer 7

People seek an optimal level of physiological/arousal; too low or high reduces performance; example: thrill-seekers seek high arousal.

Question 8

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 8

Performance is best at moderate arousal; simple tasks tolerate higher arousal than complex tasks; example: moderate stress improves test performance, excessive anxiety hurts it.

Question 9

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (structure)

Answer 9

Pyramid: physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization; example: homeless person prioritizes shelter over creativity.

Question 10

Self-actualization (Maslow)

Answer 10

Fulfillment of one’s potential and talents; example: an artist creating meaningful work after basic needs met.

Question 11

Deficiency needs vs. growth needs

Answer 11

Deficiency needs (lower levels) arise from deprivation; growth needs (top levels) involve development and meaning; example: hunger vs. pursuit of mastery.

Question 12

Biological motives

Answer 12

Motivations grounded in physiological needs (hunger, thirst, sex, sleep); example: thirst triggers drinking.

Question 13

Set point (weight) concept

Answer 13

Body’s regulated weight range that homeostatic mechanisms defend; example: metabolic adjustments when dieting.

Question 14

Role of hypothalamus in hunger

Answer 14

Hypothalamic regions integrate signals (hormones, glucose) to regulate appetite; example: lesions alter eating behavior.

Question 15

Ghrelin

Answer 15

Hormone from stomach that increases appetite; example: levels rise before meals

Question 16

Leptin

Answer 16

Adipose-derived hormone that signals satiety and reduces food intake; example: higher fat stores increase leptin.

Question 17

Role of insulin in eating

Answer 17

Pancreatic hormone regulating blood glucose and influencing hunger; example: spikes after meals affect appetite.

Question 18

External eating cues

Answer 18

Environmental stimuli (sight, smell, social context) that trigger eating beyond physiological need; example: eating popcorn at a movie despite not hungry.

Question 19

Cultural and social influences on eating

Answer 19

Norms, food availability, and social situations shape eating patterns; example: communal feasts encourage larger intake.

Question 20

Anorexia nervosa (definition)

Answer 20

Eating disorder with self-starvation, intense fear of weight gain, distorted body image; example: extreme restriction despite low weight.

Question 21

Bulimia nervosa

Answer 21

Binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors (purging, fasting); example: secretive bingeing then vomiting.

Question 22

Binge-eating disorder (definition)

Answer 22

Recurrent binge episodes without compensatory behaviors, causing distress; example: frequent overeating with feelings of loss of control.

Question 23

Sexual motivation (basic)

Answer 23

Drives and behaviors related to reproduction and sexual pleasure; example: mating behavior influenced by hormones and context.

Question 24

Testosterone’s role

Answer 24

Hormone that influences sexual drive in males and females; example: changes correlate with libido.

Question 25

Sexual response cycle (Masters & Johnson)

Answer 25

Stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution; example: physiological changes during arousal and climax.

Question 26

Kinsey’s contribution

Answer 26

Large-scale surveys describing sexual behavior diversity, challenging norms; example: variability in sexual practices.

Question 27

Achievement motivation

Answer 27

Desire to accomplish goals, attain standards, and succeed; example: striving for a competitive scholarship

Question 28

Need for achievement (nAch)

Answer 28

Trait reflecting preference for moderately challenging tasks and persistent effort; example: choosing tasks where success is attributable to effort.

Question 29

Attribution styles and achievement

Answer 29

Explanations for success/failure (internal/external, stable/unstable) affect motivation; example: attributing failure to effort motivates improvement more than blaming ability.

Question 30

Goal-setting effects

Answer 30

specific, challenging goals improve performance versus vague goals; example: “earn an A” vs. “do better.”

Question 31

Self-determination theory (basic)

Answer 31

Motivation quality depends on autonomy, competence, and relatedness; example: learning is deeper when choices are offered.

Question 32

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic rewards interaction

Answer 32

External rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation if they feel controlling; example: paying for a hobby can reduce enjoyment.

Question 33

Emotion (definition)

Answer 33

Complex state involving subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral expression; example: fear includes feeling alarm, sweaty palms, fleeing.

Question 34

Components of emotion

Answer 34

Subjective feelings, physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, cognitive appraisal; example: perceiving threat triggers arousal and appraisal.

Question 35

James–Lange theory (core idea)

Answer 35

Emotion is the awareness of physiological responses to stimuli (body→feeling); example: you feel afraid because you notice trembling.

Question 36

Cannon–Bard theory (core idea)

Answer 36

Stimulus triggers simultaneous physiological arousal and subjective experience via thalamic processes (both occur together); example: seeing a snake produces fear and arousal at once.

Question 37

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory (core idea)

Answer 37

Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label based on context; example: heart racing labeled as excitement at a concert or fear in a dark alley.

Question 38

Appraisal theory (basic)

Answer 38

Emotions result from individual cognitive evaluations (appraisals) of events’ significance for well-being; example: interpreting criticism as threat vs. growth determines emotional response.

Question 39

Facial-feedback hypothesis

Answer 39

Facial expressions can influence emotional experience (expression→feeling); example: smiling can slightly elevate mood.

Question 40

Basic emotions (Ekman)

Answer 40

Universal emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust; example: cross-cultural recognition of disgust face.

Question 41

Display rules

Answer 41

Cultural norms that govern how and when emotions are shown; example: some cultures discourage public displays of grief.

Question 42

Physiological markers of emotion

Answer 42

Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance, and hormones accompany emotions; example: arousal increases skin conductance when anxious.

Question 43

Role of amygdala in emotion

Answer 43

Processes emotional significance, especially fear, and coordinates responses; example: rapid detection of threat cues.

Question 44

Prefrontal cortex and emotion regulation

Answer 44

Involved in controlling and reappraising emotions, planning responses; example: reinterpreting a setback to reduce distress.

Question 45

Stress vs. emotion distinction

Answer 45

Stress is the process of responding to threats or challenges; emotion is a shorter affective response to stimuli; example: ongoing job strain (stress) produces multiple emotions.

Question 46

Coping strategies (problem-focused vs. emotion-focused)

Answer 46

Problem-focused targets the stressor; emotion-focused manages feelings; example: solving a scheduling conflict vs. seeking social support.

Question 47

Fight-or-flight response

Answer 47

Sympathetic activation preparing body for action under threat (epinephrine/norepinephrine); example: increased heart rate when startled.

Question 48

Tend-and-befriend response

Answer 48

Social affiliation and caregiving stress response, especially in females, mediated partly by oxytocin; example: seeking friends when anxious.

Question 49

Role of cortisol in stress

Answer 49

Glucocorticoid hormone from HPA axis mobilizing energy during prolonged stress; example: elevated cortisol during chronic exams.

Question 50

Emotion regulation strategies (reappraisal vs. suppression)

Answer 50

Reappraisal changes interpretation to alter emotional impact; suppression inhibits outward signs—reappraisal typically healthier; example: reframing criticism as helpful feedback.

Question 51

Microexpressions

Answer 51

Brief facial expressions revealing true emotions despite attempts to hide them; example: a quick flash of anger before smiling.

Question 52

Motivation across the lifespan

Answer 52

Motivational priorities shift (e.g., young adults focus on achievement; older adults on emotional goals); example: older adults preferring meaningful social time.

Question 53

Approach vs. avoidance motivation

Answer 53

Approach drives movement toward positive outcomes; avoidance drives away from negative outcomes—avoidance often stronger; example: studying to gain praise vs. studying to avoid failure.

Question 54

Risk-taking and sensation seeking

Answer 54

Trait-level preference for novel, intense experiences linked to dopamine and age; example: adolescents engaging in risky sports.

Question 55

Behavioral activation system (BAS) vs. behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

Answer 55

BAS promotes approach to rewards; BIS promotes avoidance of punishment; example: reward-sensitive person more likely to pursue opportunities.

Question 56

Self-efficacy (Bandura)

Answer 56

Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks, enhancing motivation and persistence; example: confident test-takers study more effectively.

Question 57

Delay of gratification

Answer 57

Ability to postpone smaller immediate rewards for larger future rewards; example: choosing to save money rather than spend now.

Question 58

Hunger signals: short-term vs. long-term

Answer 58

Short-term cues (stomach contractions, ghrelin) prompt immediate eating; long-term signals (leptin, fat stores) regulate overall intake; example: snacking from boredom vs. chronic weight regulation.

Question 59

Social motives (affiliation, power, intimacy)

Answer 59

Needs to belong, influence others, and form close relationships drive social behavior; example: joining clubs to form friendships.

Question 60

Emotion contagion

Answer 60

Tendency for people to ‘catch’ others’ emotions via mimicry and social signals; example: group laughter spreading.

Question 61

Cognitive labeling examples (application)

Answer 61

Same physiological arousal labeled differently by context—e.g., racing heart at a job interview labeled as anxiety or excitement depending on appraisal.

Question 62

Measuring motivation and emotion (methods)

Answer 62

Self-report scales, behavioral observation, physiological measures (EEG, HR), neuroimaging; example: using questionnaires to assess achievement motive.

Question 63

Practical application—motivating employees

Answer 63

Use clear, challenging goals, feedback, autonomy, and appropriate rewards to sustain motivation; example: goal-setting with performance bonuses.

Question 64

Practical application—emotion regulation in therapy

Answer 64

Teach reappraisal and coping skills to reduce maladaptive emotional responses; example: CBT reframing negative thoughts.

Question 65

Cross-cultural considerations in emotion

Answer 65

Basic expressions may be universal, but meanings, intensity, and display rules vary by culture; example: smiling frequency differs by country.

Question 66

Interaction of cognition and physiology in emotion

Answer 66

Emotions arise from interplay of bodily states and cognitive appraisals rather than from one sole source; example: context shapes whether arousal becomes fear or excitement.

Question 67

Role of learning in emotion (conditioning)

Answer 67

Emotions can be classically conditioned to neutral stimuli; example: fear of dogs after being bitten.

Question 68

Habituation of emotional responses

Answer 68

repeated exposure to a stimulus can reduce emotional reaction over time; example: lessened fear after repeated harmless exposures.