1
Q
What is morality from the cognitive perspective?
A
Children develop knowledge about ethical rules and make judgments about the “goodness” or “badness” of certain acts
2
Q
What is morality from the behavioural perspective?
A
Children behave in “good” or “bad” ways in situations that require ethical decisions
3
Q
What is morality from the emotional perspective?
A
Children have “good” and “bad” feelings about their behaviors
4
Q
How did Piaget study moral development?
A
- Piaget’s cognitive theory of moral development
- Studying how children’s attitudes toward rules in games changed as the children got older
- Examined the way children’s judgments of the seriousness of transgressions changed with age
- Proposed a stage theory in 3 stages (Premoral stage, Moral realism, Moral reciprocity)
5
Q
Describe the premoral stage
A
children show little concern for rules (under age 5) of a game
6
Q
Describe the moral realism stage
A
- children show great respect for rules and apply them quite inflexibly (age 5+) in a game
- —Moral Absolutionism - Rigid application of rules to all individuals regardless of their culture or circumstance (e.g, ask if children have the same rules for marbles, they will say yes)
- —-Immanent Justice - The notion that any deviation from rules will inevitably result in punishment or retribution. (Might relate falling off a bike to earlier not listening to parents)
7
Q
Describe the moral reciprocity stage
A
children recognize that social rules are arbitrary and may be questioned and altered, consider the feelings and views of others, and believe in equal justice for all (age 11+)
8
Q
What was the evaluation of Piaget’s theory?
A
- Research in Western cultures supports Piaget’s theory, but findings in other cultures have been less consistent
- Piaget underestimated children’s capacities
- –Children show understanding of intention at younger ages
9
Q
What was Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of moral judgement?
A
There are levels (3) and within each there are 2 stages of moral judgement, based on presenting series of moral dilemna stories.
10
Q
Describe the pre conventional level (level 1) of kohlberg’s theory of moral judgement
A
moral judgement is based on the desire to avoid punishment and gain rewards. This level not based on rules and norms that guide social interactions: 1) Avoid punishment 2) Seek rewards
11
Q
Describe the conventional level (level 2) of Kohlberg’s theory of moral judgement
A
moral judgment is based on the motive to conform, either to get approval from others or to follow society’s rules and conventions.
- Conform to get approval from others (stage 3)
- Conform with society’s rules, laws, and conventions such as duty to family, marriage vows, or the country (stage 4)
12
Q
Describe the Post conventional level (level 3) of Kohlberg’s theory of moral judgement
A
judgments are controlled by an internalized ethical code that is relatively independent of the approval or disapproval of others.
- Morality is based on society’s consensus about human rights (stage 5).
- Morality is based on abstract principles of justice and equality (stage 6). In stage 6, view rules and laws as arbitrary, but respect them because they protect human welfare.
13
Q
What are the limitations of kohlberg’s theory?
A
- Research shows that people generally move through the stages of moral judgment in the same order as Kohlberg suggested
- Stages 5 and 6 have less clear support because few people reach these stages
- Findings have been consistent with Kohlberg’s view that progress is toward higher rather than lower stages
- Theory may not be universal as cultural differences have been found. People in collectivist cultures focus on community rather than personal standards
- In addition to cognitive development, the times in which people live can affect their moral judgments (E.g., civil rights movement and 9-11 attacks sensitize people to issues of fairness and justice)
- Kohlberg’s theory was based on only one type of data: verbal responses to interviews about moral dilemmas. People are more likely to endorse postconventional reasoning if they are asked to respond to multiple-choice questions rather than an open-ended interview (where participants had to verbally articulate/explain their moral judgements)
- Kohlberg’s hypothetical moral dilemmas differ from real-life dilemmas.
14
Q
What are the new aspects of moral development?
A
- Expansion to include the area of civil rights and liberties, such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion
- As children mature, their appreciation of the freedoms increases
- Children’s judgments about forms of government also change as they age. Starting at and increasing from grade 1, children view democratic governments as fairer
15
Q
How did Carol gilligan expand the moral domainand what did she find in her research?
A
- Carol Gilligan expanded the moral domain to address gender issues and the dimension of caring. Kohlberg’s research participants had included only boys and men
- Gilligan questioned whether girls and women would show the same pattern of moral reasoning
- She found support for gender-linked moral orientations. Females: more caring approach to dilemmas, Males: focus more on individual rights and principles of justice
- However, men and women do not greatly differ in their appraisal of hypothetical moral dilemmas
16
Q
What is Turiel’s Social convention domain?
A
- An area of social judgment focused on social expectations, norms, and regularities that help facilitate smooth and efficient functioning in society
- Norms for table manners, modes of greeting, and other forms of etiquette; bathing practices; respect for positions in a social hierarchy; and reciprocity in social exchanges
17
Q
What did children view as worse than social conventions?
A
Children of all ages consistently view moral violations as worse than violations of social conventions. Moral violations viewed as resulting in harm to another person and violating norms of justice and fairness
18
Q
How do children and adolescent view moral rules vs. social conventions?
A
- Both children and adolescents believe that moral rules are obligatory, absolute, universally applicable, invariant, and normatively binding
- They recognize that deviations from social conventions are merely impolite or disruptive violations of social rules and traditions
19
Q
What is Turiel’s psychological domain?
A
- An area of social judgment focused on beliefs and knowledge of self and others
- Focuses on different issues
1) Personal issues - affect only the self, such as preferences and choices about one’s body, privacy, choice of friends, and recreational activities (tattoo, spiked hair)
2) Prudential issues - have immediate physical consequences for the self, such as safety, comfort, and health (smoking, drinking) are not moral decisions
3) Psychological issues - involve beliefs and knowledge of self and others and choices about revealing aspects of the self to others (e.g., a good friend does/does not share intimate details)
20
Q
In Turiels psychological domain, what are children more open minded about and what do they understand morality?
A
Children are open minded about personal issues
Children also understand that…Individual choices are acceptable, Prudential transgressions are not as bad as moral transgressions
21
Q
When do children start to learn the difference between right and wrong and when/why does this understanding increase?
A
Observations of toddlers’ interactions with mothers indicate that they begin to understand right and wrong as early as 16 months. Understanding increases between 2-3 years, Mothers engage children in “moral dialogues”
22
Q
When do moral judgements advance and what does it stimulate?
A
- Moral judgments advance when parents initiate discussions about other people’s feelings, use disciplinary techniques that involve reasoning and explanation, and promote democratic family discussions
- This stimulates children to think about their actions and the implications of their actions for the welfare of others
23
Q
Who else do children learn rules from?
A
Children also learn about the different types of rules from caregivers and teachers as well as their parents
24
Q
What determines how effective the rule learned is?
A
Effectiveness depends on how well the message fits the child’s developmental level
25
What do authoritarian parents treat children's conventional transgressions as (manners)
Authoritarian parents treat their children’s conventional transgression (manners, etiquette) as moral transgressions.
26
How authoritative parents teach their kids morals vs permissive and authoritarian parents?
Authoritative parents are more likely than authoritarian or permissive parents to establish clear and legitimate boundaries between moral, conventional, and personal issues for their adolescents
27
What is self regulation?
The ability to inhibit impulses and behave in accordance with social and moral rules in the absence of external control.
28
What are the 3 phases of self regulation?
1) Control phase - children depend on adults for reminders about their behaviours
2) Self-control phase - children comply with adults’ expectations even when adults are not providing reminders
3) Self-regulation phase - children use strategies and plans to direct their own behavior and resist temptation.
- -Delay of gratification - Putting off until a later time possessing or doing something that gives one immediate pleasure
29
Are the 3 phases of self regulation universal?
Children differ in the rate at which they go through the 3 phases
30
What are the characteristics of children who are early self regulators?
Children who are early self-regulators (i.e., age 5) have stronger sense of moral self, and internalize values and rules
31
How do parents and other caregivers facilitate children’s development of self-regulation?
-A cooperative, affectionate, and mutually responsive relationship with parents helps children develop a strong conscience or internalized values and standards of moral behavior
32
What does interalize mean in terms of learning rules/morality?
To internalize is the process by which children acquire the rules and standards of behavior laid down by others in their culture and adopt them as their own
33
What does research indicate about behaviour across situations and time?
Research demonstrates children are consistent in moral behavior in varying situations (athletics, social events, at school, at home, alone, and with peers). Moral behavior is also stable across development
34
What did Wilson et al., Find about children's lying habits?
Wilson and colleagues examined when and why 2-4-year-old children lie and then revisited the children two years later in Canada
Almost all of the children (96%) in the study lied and lying increased and became more complex with age
Why did they lie?To avoid responsibility for wrongdoings,
To accuse siblings, To gain control over another’s behavior, Boys lied more than girls and older siblings lied more than younger siblings
35
What emotions are considered moral emotions and what do they play a role in?
Emotions like remorse, shame, and guilt play a role in regulating moral actions and thoughts
36
How early are guilt and the beginning of conscience experienced?
- Guilt is experienced as early as age 2
- Researchers now suggest that the period between 2 and 3 years is normal for the emergence of guilt and the beginning of conscience
37
How are parents influential in the development of moral emotions?
- A warm and nurturing environment motivates children to listen to their parents’ messages and internalize feelings of guilt and shame.
- By providing explanations (i.e., explains the rules and not just enforces them).
- By forcefully expressing their own emotions (E.g. with some amount of ‘dramatic’ anger, children focus on the harm or injustice they have caused)
- By positively responding to the children’s guilt, remorse or shame, children learn that this restores relationship with parents
38
Does guilt affect moral behaviour?
- By age 4½ the anticipation of guilt may serve as a deterrent to subsequent misbehavior and rule violation
- Children prone to guilt by 5th grade are less likely to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated in adolescence.
- Guilt-prone university students are less likely to abuse drugs and alcohol
39
Does shame affect moral behaviour?
- shame does not appear to serve the same inhibitory functions as guilt and may even be a detrimental factor
- Correlated with more externalizing symptoms in childhood and predicted risky driving, earlier drug and alcohol use and less safe sex in adolescence
- Guilt, not shame, is most effective in motivating moral behavior
40
What is prosocial behaviour?
Conduct intended to help or benefit other people. The other part of moral development (i.e., “doing good”). Includes sharing, caring, comforting, cooperating, helping, sympathizing, and performing “random acts of kindness"
41
What is altruistic behaviour?
- Intrinsically motivated conduct intended to help others without expectation of acknowledgment or reward
Often anonymous
42
What prosocial and altruistic behaviours develop in infant's 0-6months old?
-reacts emotionally to other's distress
43
What prosocial and altruistic behaviours develop in infant's 6-12 months old
- exhibit sharing behaviour
| - display affection to familiar people
44
What prosocial and altruistic behaviours develop in children 1-2 years old?
- play cooperative games
- comfort people in distress
- help parents with household tasks
- shows and gives toys to adults
45
What prosocial and altruistic behaviours develop in children 2-3 years old?
- shares
- exhibits increasingly planned caregiving and helping
- verbally expresses intention to help
- tries to protect others
46
What prosocial and altruistic behaviours develop in children 3-10 years old?
- hedonsistically motivated to perform prosocial acts
- recongizes others needs even when they conflict with own
- justifies prosocial behaviour by reference to notions of good and bad consideration of approval and acceptance of others
47
What prosocial and altruistic behaviours develop in children 10-17 years old?
- Justifies helping according to internalized values and concern with rights and dignity of others
- May believe in individual and social obligations and the equality of all individuals,
- May base self-respect on living up to own values and accepted norms
48
is prosocial behaviour stable across time?
- Individual differences in prosocial behavior appear early in childhood and are quite stable as children develop
- Children who start out being generous, helpful, and kind are likely to continue to exhibit these prosocial qualities as they mature
49
Are girls more prosocial than boys?
- Gender differences in prosocial behavior depend on the particular action
- Girls consistently display more consideration and kindness
- Girls are also more empathic
- Girls are somewhat more likely than boys to engage in helping, comforting, sharing, and donating (but gender differences are small)
- No gender differences have been observed in situations in which prosocial actions are anonymous
- Men may behave more prosocially in life-risking rescues. In less risky situations, men and women are similar.
50
When are gender differences in prosocial behaviour more pronounced?
Gender differences are more pronounced when data come from self-reports and reports by family members and peers rather than in data gathered by objective observers.
This suggests that some gender differences reflect people’s conceptions of what boys and girls are supposed to be like rather than how they actually behave
51
What does the early appearance of prosocial behaviors suggests about humans?
- human beings are biologically prepared to respond empathically and to engage in prosocial activities
- The fact that behaviors such as helping, sharing, and consoling are seen even among nonhuman animals suggests evolutionary roots of prosocial behavior
52
What are identical twins more alike in than fraternal twins?
Identical twins are more alike in their prosocial behavior and empathic concern than fraternal twins
53
How much percentage do genetic factors account for?
Genetic factors are thought to account for 30% of variation in prosocial behaviour in adolescence
54
What do studies of people with brain lesions show about empathy?
Studies of people with brain lesions show that these individuals often have deficits in empathy
55
What do Brain imaging studies reveal about what happens when people feel empathy or compassion?
Brain-imaging studies reveal that specific brain regions are activated when people hear sad stories, feel empathy and compassion, etc.
56
How do children acquire prosocial concepts and behaviour?
- Children acquire prosocial concepts and behavior by watching and imitating prosocial role models: parents, teachers, media
- Parents that focus children’s attention on the consequences of their actions can promote children’s prosocial behavior
57
How can parents promote children's prosocial behaviour?
by giving them opportunities to perform prosocial acts
Inside the home: Sweeping, cleaning, setting the table
Outside the home: volunteering
58
Children spend time with peers who are _____ to them in prosocial behavior
similar
59
What did the study about children who were exposed to prosocial peers find?
Peers can act as models of prosocial behavior
In one study, children who were exposed to prosocial peers at the beginning of the school year – engaged in more prosocial actions later in the school year
60
What can teachers do to encourage prosocial behaviours?
Training teachers to reward prosocial behaviours led to increases in prosocial behaviours
61
How can Pets offer another oppurtunity for children to learn prosocial behaviour?
Children with dogs or cats have scored higher in prosocial behaviour and empathy
62
How do culture and responsibility influence behaviour (prosocial vs. altruistic)
In some cultures, children are given a major responsibility for taking care of siblings and performing household tasks. Children who perform more domestic chores and spend more time caring for their infant brothers, sisters, and cousins, are more altruistic
63
At what age do children have the capacity empathize with another person's emotional state?
By the time they are 2 years old, children have the capacity to empathize with another person’s emotional state. Another person’s expression of distress elicits a similar emotion .
64
What have researchers found about individuals who are particularly empthetic?
Researchers have found that children who are particularly empathic are also more prosocial
65
What is the definition of perspective taking?
- Perspective taking is the capacity to understand another’s point of view
- Preschool children who are able to take another person’s perspective are more prosocial than those who don’t have this ability
