1
Q
Personality
A
• Distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a person’s response to situations
2
Q
Personality components
A
• Identity - you are like no one else
• Internal Causes -it’s inside you, not in the environment
• Organized -the pattern ‘fits together’, has
meaning
3
Q
Things that attribute to personality
A
- components of indentity
- perceived internal cause
- perceived organization and strucure
4
Q
Psychodynamic theorists look for the causes of behaviour in a dynamic interplay of
A
inner forces that often conflict with one another
5
Q
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
A
- Unconscious part of mind
- Powerful influence on behaviour
- E.g., conversion hysteria
6
Q
Psychic energy
A
- Generated by instinctual drives
* Discharged directly or indirectly
7
Q
Mental events
A
- Conscious: aware
- Preconscious: unaware but can be recalled
- Unconscious: wishes, impulses, etc. we are unaware of
8
Q
The Id
A
- Exists totally within the unconscious mind
- It is the innermost core of the personality
- The only structure present at birth
- The source of all psychic energy
- No direct contact with reality and functions in a totally irrational manner
- pleasure principle
9
Q
Pleasure principle
A
• Seeks immediate gratification or release
• Regardless of rational considerations and
environmental realities
10
Q
The Ego
A
- Functions primarily at a conscious level
- Functions to keep impulses of id in control
- Delays gratification
- Imparts self-control
- It operates according to the reality principle (tests reality to decide when and under what conditions the id can safely discharge its impulses & satisfy its needs)
11
Q
The Superego
A
• The last personality structure to develop
• The moral arm of the personality
• Controls impulses of id with external control • According to Freud, the superego developed by the age of four or five
- operates according to moralistic goals
12
Q
Ego cannot always control id = conflict
In the form of
A
• Anxiety when impulses of id threaten to get out of control
13
Q
Defence mechanisms
A
- repression
- denial
- displacement
- intellectualizaiton
- projection
- rationalization
- reaction formation (psychic E release in exaggerated expression of opposite behaviour)
- sublimation
14
Q
Psychosexual Development
Series of stages:
A
- Focuses on specific pleasure-sensitive areas of body
* Adult personality is function of progressing through theses stages, if not could cause fixation
15
Q
Fixation
A
• Arrested development where instincts focused on particular area
16
Q
Research on Psychoanalytic Theory
A
- Difficult to test: genuine results? Or lies
- Unconscious processes: Nonconscious processes have been demonstrated
Psychosexual stages:
• Concept of childhood sexuality rejected
• Issue = importance of early experiences & emotional attachment
17
Q
Neoanalytic Approaches
• Adler
A
- Motivated by social interest
- Place social welfare above personal interests
- Striving for superiority
18
Q
• Motivated by social interest
A
- Place social welfare above personal interests
* Striving for superiority
19
Q
Object relation theorists
A
• Focus = mental representations people form of themselves
•Become ‘working models’ to interpret social
interactions
• Can generate self-fulfilling prophecies
20
Q
Object relation theorist can effect what’s
A
Attachment style in adult relationships
Secure vs avoidant vs anxious-ambivalent
21
Q
Neoanalysts were psychoanalysts who
A
disagreed with certain aspects of Freud’s thinking and developed their own theories.
22
Q
Humanistic Approach
• Reaction to Freud
A
• Emphasis on role of conscious, creative potential, self-actualization
23
Q
Motivations for behaviours
Maslow & Rogers
A
• Innate tendency towards self - actualization
24
Q
Abraham Maslow
A
• Considered self-actualization to be the ultimate human need and the highest expression of human nature
25
George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory
•Kelly’s primary interest was how people construct reality
- personal contructs
26
Personal constructs
* Are cognitive categories which sort the people and events in their lives
* The primary basis for individual differences in personality
27
Carl Rogers Self Theory
* Central concept = self-concept
* Organized , consistent set of perceptions & beliefs about oneself
* Once established - tendency to maintain it
- self consistency
- congruence
28
Self-consistency
•Consistency among ‘self-perceptions’
29
Congruence
• Consistency between self perceptions & experience
30
Psychological Adjustment
* Level of adjustment: Degree of congruence between self-concept & experience
* Maladjustment: Deny or distort reality to be consistent with self- concept
* Healthy adjustment: Experiences are easily incorporated into self-concept
31
High Self-esteem
* Fewer interpersonal problems
* More capable of forming loving relationships
* Achieve at higher level
32
Poor Self-esteem
• Anxiety, depression, poor social relationships, underachievement
33
Unstable / unrealistically high self-esteem
* More problematic than low self-esteem
| * May react aggressively when self-esteem threatened
34
Pursuit of self-esteem
* Enhanced self-esteem vs. mastery of the goal
| * Failure is problematic if goal is enhanced self-esteem
35
Fostering self-esteem
* Unconditional acceptance and love
* Clear guidelines for behaviour
* Reinforcement of compliance
* Freedom to make decisions and express opinions within guidelines
36
Need for Positive Regard
• Innate need for acceptance, sympathy, love
37
Unconditional Positive Regard
• Independent of behaviour
38
Conditional Positive Regard
* Dependent upon behaviour
| * Creates ‘conditions of worth’
39
Positive self-regard
• Experience of being understood & valued gives us freedom to grow
40
Lack of unconditional positive regard
•Creates ‘conditions of worth’
41
Fully functioning persons
• Self-determined, sense of inner freedom, accept inner & outer experiences as they are
42
Self-verification
* Motivated to confirm self-concept
* Better recall for more consistent self-descriptions
* Seek out self-confirming relationships
43
Self-enhancement
* Strong tendency to gain & preserve positive self-image
* Contributes to psychological well-being
44
Individualistic culture have stronger_________ achievement and collectivist have stronger __________ achievement
personal. Social
45
Gender schemas
Males
• Achievement, strength, self sufficiency
• Individualistic
* Females
* Helpfulness, kindness, self competencies
* Collectivist
46
Evaluating Humanistic Theories
* Too much reliance on self-reports • Not scientific?
* How define self-actualization tendency?
* Contribution to psychotherapy approaches
* Characteristics of therapist
* Discrepancies between perceived self & ideal self
47
Factor analysis
* Find correlations among behaviours
* Reflect basic dimension or trait
* Each dimension reflects a ‘continuum’ of behaviour
48
Eysenck original theory
| • Only 2 dimensions needed
1. Introversion-Extraversion
| 2. Stability-Instability
49
The Five Factor Model
| • Universally found
1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
• Variations on factors create diversity in personalities
50
5 Factor Model & Eysenck’s 2 factor Model Good at predicting behaviour
across broad range
51
Cattel’s 16 Factors Predict behaviour more
specifically
52
Brains of extreme introverts =
over-aroused
• Minimize stimulation
53
Brains of extreme extroverts =
under-aroused
• Seek to maximize stimulation
54
Stability - instability show differences in
autonomic nervous system arousal
55
Novelty seeking
• Related to levels of dopamine
56
Traits & Behaviour Show
stability & change
57
Traits
| • Some, e.g., Introversion-extroversion, emotionality, activity level tend to remain
stable over time
58
Certain thought patterns remain stable
• E.g., optimism-pessimism
59
Behaviour Shows little
stability across situations
60
Predicting behaviour from personality traits?
• Difficult because of 3 factors:
1. Traits interact with other traits
2. ‘Importance’ of trait influences consistency
3. Variation in ‘self-monitoring’
61
Self-monitors
* High = attentive to situational cues
* Low = attentive to internal beliefs
* Extreme = very differently in different situations
62
Evaluating Trait Approach
| • Pros
Focused attention on value of identifying & measuring personality dispositions
63
Evaluating Trait Approach
Cons
* ‘Describes’ structure of personality & individual differences
* Cannot explain underlying psychological mechanisms
64
Albert Bandura
Behaviour not explained by ‘external’ or ‘internal’ factors alone
- reciprocal determinism
- social learning and self-efficacy:
Beliefs about ability to perform task based on intention to set and reach goals
65
Reciprocal Determinism
* Individual & behaviour & environment are linked
| * Influential pattern of 2-way causal links
66
Reciprocal determine contains
Environment, person, behaviour, all interacting
67
Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, & Locus of Control
• Expectancy & Reinforcement
- Behaviour governed by 2 factors (Rotter)
• Expectancy
- Likelihood of consequences given behaviour
• Reinforcement
- How much we desire or dread consequences
68
Social Cognitive Theories
Locus of Control
• Generalized expectancy
• Applies to many aspects of world view
Internal and external
69
Internal locus
• Events under personal control
* Self-determined
* Seek out information; becoming involved
* Sense of personal effectiveness
70
External locus
• Luck, chance, powerful others
* Less resistant to social pressures
* Give into ‘powerful’ others
71
What influences self-efficacy?
- performance experiences (previous succes and failures)
- observational learning (see behaviour and consequences similar to models)
- emotional arousal (arousal = enthusiasm)
- verbal persuasion (encouraging messages revised form others)
72
Self-Efficacy & Goal Setting
| • Want to know what to do? Then set:
* Specific & measurable goals
* Performance not outcome goals
* Difficult but realistic goals
* Positive not negative goals
* Short-range & long-range goals
* Definite time spans for achievement
73
Consistency Paradox
Level of consistency in behaviour is low
74
Cognitive Affective Personality System (CAPS)
Interplay between personality characteristics and situation
75
Evaluating Social Cognitive Theories
* Advanced understanding of internal & external factors
* Puts insights from other perspectives into cognitive- behavioural concepts
* Explains inconsistency of behaviour as a stable structure which reacts differently to particular situations
76
Personality Assessment through Interviews
* Structured set of standardized questions
| * Note other behaviours - appearance, speech patterns etc.
77
Drawbacks to interviews
* Characteristics of interviewer can affect answers
| * Dependence on co-operation, honesty of interviewee
78
Behavioural Assessment
* Need explicit coding system
* Aim is not solely to ‘describe’ behaviour
* Specific behaviour, frequency, specific situations, under what conditions
- interjudge reliability
79
Interjudge reliability
* High level of agreement
| * among observers
80
Remote behavioural sampling
* Sample behaviour at random times over period of days, weeks etc.
* Allows for data collection of behaviour that may otherwise not be revealed
81
Personality Scales
* Objective measures
| * Use standard questions & agreed upon scoring key
82
Pros and cons to personality scales
Advantage:
• Collect large amount of data
Disadvantages:
• Validity of answers (truthfully answered?)
• Validity scales
•Used to detect a ‘pattern’ in responses
83
Personality scales items: 2 ways to develop
Rational and empirical
84
Rational
* Based on conception of trait
* Item seems ‘relevant’ to the trait
* NEO-PI (Costa & McCrae)
* Big 5 personality traits
85
Empirical
* Answered by differing groups
| * Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory revised = MMPI-2
86
MMPI-2
* 10 clinical scales
* 3 validity scales
* Configuration pattern of scales
* Measure personality deviations
* Aspects of personality in people who do not display disorders
* Screening device in industrial, military settings
87
Jeffrey Dahmer’s MMPI
| profile
```
• Convicted mass murderer
• Reflects his severe psychological disturbance
• Is consistent with his pattern
of unrestrained and vicious
victimization of others
```
88
Projective tests
* Presented with ambiguous stimulus
* Interpretation = ‘projection’ of inner needs, feelings, ways of viewing the world
- thematic apperception test
- inkblots
89
Rorschach Inkblots
• 10 inkblots
• Categorized according to ‘types’ of objects seen
• Different examiners - different
interpretations?
90
Thematic Apperception Test
* Ambiguous illustrations/ photos
* Asked to ‘tell a story’
* ‘themes’ are analyzed
91
Personality Theory Provides
framework
92
Personality assessment proves
‘Tools’
93
Who uses what tools provided by assessments ?
* Psychodynamic = projective techniques
* Humanistic = self-report measures
* Social-cognitive = behavioural assessments
* Biological = physiological measurements
* Trait theorists = inventories (MMPI, NEO-PI)
Psychology 105
flashcards
Decks in class (9)
# Cards
-
Chapter 231
-
Chapter 17 - treatment of psycological disorders82
-
Chapter 16 - pyschological disorders116
-
Chapter 15 - Stress, health, and coping65
-
Chapter 14 - Personality93
-
Chapter 13 - behaviour in a social context97
-
Chapter 12 - Development over the lifespan141
-
Chapter 10 - Intelligence75
-
Chapter 9 - Language And Thinking59
