Biology > Chapter 2 - Reproduction > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

Reproduction

(definition)

A

organisms perpetuates itself and its species

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2
Q

cell division

(definition)

A
  • cell doubles its organelles and cytoplasm
  • replicates DNA
  • divides into two
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3
Q

unicellular organisms

(cell division)

A

means of reproduction

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4
Q

mutlicellular organism

(cell division)

A
  • method of growth
  • development
  • replacement of worn-out cells
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5
Q

Mitosis

(definition)

A
  • division and distribution of DNA to two daughter cells
  • each cell receives complete copy of original genome
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6
Q

Mitosis

(General steps)

A
  1. Interphase
  2. Nuclear division
  3. Cell division
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7
Q

Karyokinesis

A

nuclear division

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8
Q

cytokinesis

A
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9
Q

Steps of Mitosis

A
  1. Interphase
  2. Prophase
  3. Metaphase
  4. Anaphase
  5. Telophase
  6. Cytokinesis
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10
Q

Interphase

A
  • 90% of cell’s life
  • each chromosome replicated
  • after replication - chromosome = two daughter chromatids
  • individual chromosomes NOT visible
  • DNA uncoiled (chromatin)
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11
Q

each chromosome replicated during interphase so that..

A

a complete copy of genome can be distributed to both daughter cells

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12
Q

centromere

A

central region where sister chromatids held together

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13
Q

chromatin

A

uncoiled DNA

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14
Q

Prophase

A
  • Chromosomes condense
  • (animals) centriole pairs separate and move towards opposite poles of cell
  • spindle apparatus forms between
  • nuclear membrane dissolves
  • spindle fibers interact with chromosomes
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15
Q

metaphase

A

centriole pairs at opposite poles of cell

fibers of spindle apparatus attach to each chromatid at centomere to align chromosomes at center of cell (equator)

forms metaphase plate

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16
Q

anaphase

A

centromeres split

each chromatid has own distinct centromere

sister chromatids separate

shortneing of spindle fibers pulls sister chromatids towards opposite poles of cell

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17
Q

microtubules

A

makeup spindle fibers

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18
Q

telophase

A
  • spindle apparatus disappears
  • nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
  • each nucleus contains 2N
  • chromosomes uncoil
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19
Q

Cytokinesis

A

end of telophase

cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells

(animal cells) cleavage furrow forms

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20
Q

cleavage furrow

A
  • cell membrane indents along equator of cell
  • pinches through cell
  • separates two nuclei
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21
Q

Prophase

(synopsis)

A

chromosomes condense

spindles form

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22
Q

Metaphase

(synopses)

A

chromosomes align

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23
Q

Anaphase

(synopsis)

A

sister chromatids separate

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24
Q

telophase

(synopsis)

A

new nuclear membrane forms

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25
chromatid composed of..
double-stranded molecule of DNA
26
sister chromatids
identical copies of each other
27
chromosome
single chromatid or pair of chromatids attached at centromere
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Mitosis in Plant Cells (2 major differences bw plant and animal)
plants lack centrioles spindle apparatus synthesized by microtubule organizing centers (invisible)
29
Why no cleavage furrow in plant cells? (cytokinesis)
plant cells are rigid
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how do plant cells divide? | (cytokinesis)
formation of a cell plate
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cell plate | (cytokinesis in plant cells)
expanding partition grows outward from interior of cell until reaches cell membrane way in which plant cells divide (cytokinesis)
32
Meiosis
process by which sex cells are formed
33
sexual reproduction | (meiosis)
fusion of two gametes
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gametes | (meiosis)
specialized sex cells produced by each parent
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similarities bw meiosis and mitosis
cell duplicates its chromosomes before undergoing process
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differences between mitosis and meiosis
mitosis preserves diploid (2N) meiosis produces haploid (1N) meiosis halves number of chromosomes
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meiosis involves ___ divisions of primary sex cells
2
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Mieosis results in ___ haploid cells
4
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Phases of Meiosis
1. Interphase 2. Prophase 1 3. Metaphase 1 4. Anaphase 1 5. Telophase 1 6. metaphase 2 7. anaphase 2 8. telophase 2
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Interphase | (meiosis)
parent cell's chromosomes replicated result in 2N number of sister chromatids
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First Meiotic Division produces | (Meiosis)
two intermediate daughter cells with N chromosomes with sister chromatids
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Prophase 1 | (meiosis)
* chromatin ---\> chromosomes * spindle apparatus appears * necleoli, nuclear membrane disappear * homologous chromosomes intertwine * recombination, crossing over occurs
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Homologous chromosomes | (prophase 1 - meiosis)
chromosomes that code for same traits one inhereted from each parent
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synapsis
homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine
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tetrad | (prophase 1 - meiosis)
synaptic pair of homologous chromosomes containing 4 chromatids
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crossing over | (prophase 1 - meiosis)
chromatids of homologous chromsomes break at corresponding points and exchange DNA
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crossing over occurs between...
homologous chromosomes NOT sister chromatids of same chromosomes
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recombination results in...
genetic diversity within a species sister chromatids no longer identical after recombination
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anaphase 1 | (meiosis)
homologous pairs pulled to opposite poles (disjunction)
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Disjunction | (Anaphase 1 - Meiosis)
each chromosome (paternal) separates from homologue (maternal) either chromosome ends up in either daughter cell
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each daughter cell has... | (as a result of meiosis 1)
unique pool of genes from random mixture of maternal and paternal origin
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telophase 1 | (meiosis)
nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus each chromosome consists of sister chromatids joined at centromere
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2nd Meiotic Division | (meiosis)
similiar to mitosis not preceded by chromosomal replication 1. metaphase ii 2. anaphase ii 3. telophase ii
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metaphase 2 | (meiosis)
chromosomes align at equator
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anaphase 2 | (meiosis)
chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles
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telophase 2 | (meiosis)
chromosomes are surrounded by reformed nuclear membrane
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final product of meiosis
4 haploid (1N) games
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human females product of meiosis
4 haploid gametes only one daughter cell becomes functional gamete
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Mitosis Summary
2N --\> 2N in all dividing cells homologous chromosomes don't pair up no crossing over
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Meiosis Summary
2N ----\> N only in sex cells homologous chromosomes pair up at metaphase plate form tetrads crossing over occurs
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Sexual Reproductive Mechanisms
Sexual Reproduction in Animals Sexual Reproduction in Humans
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sexual reproduction differs from asexual in that there are...
two parents
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end result of sexual reproduction
genetically unique offspring
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sexual reproduction occurs via
fusion of two gametes
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gametes
specialized sex cells produced by each parent (result of meiosis)
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Sexual Reproduction Requires
* production of functional sex cells or gametes by adult organisms * union of these cells to form zygote (fertilization or conjugation) * development of zygote into another adult
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Sexual Reproduction in Animals
formation and fertilization of gametes regulation of processes by both parents
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Gonads (sexual reproduction in animals) male and female
organs produces gametes male - testes female - ovaries
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testes
male gonads produce sperm in tightly coiled seminiferous tubules
70
ovaries
female gonads produce oocytes (eggs)
71
oocytes
eggs produced by ovaries (female gonads)
72
Hermaphrodites
species with both female and male gonads e.g. hydra, earthworm
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spermatogenisis | (sexual reproduction in animals)
sperm production occurs in seminiferous tubules
74
spermatogonia
diploid cells undergo meiosis produce 4 haploid sperm (equal in size)
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mature sperm | (form)
elongated cell head, tail, neck, body
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head of sperm
consists of nucleus contains paternal genome
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flagellum
tail of sperm propels sperm
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neck and body of sperm
contain mitochondria provide energy for locomotion
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Oogenesis | (sexual reproduction in animals)
production of female gametes occurs in ovaries
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process of oogenesis
one diploid primary female sex cell ---\> meiosis in ovaries ---\> single mature egg
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each meiotic division of oogenesis produces
polar body
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polar body
small cell contains nucleus rapidly degenerate
83
mature ovum is/contains | (oogenesis)
large cell * cytopolasm * RNA * organelles * nutrients needed by developing embryo
84
Fertilization definition types (sexual reproduction in animals)
union of egg and sperm nuclei forms zygote (diploid) * external fertilization * internal fertilization
85
External Fertilization who and process (Fertilization) (sexual reproduction in animals)
vertebrates that reproduce in water (fish and amphibians) female lays eggs in water male deposits sperm in vicinity many eggs must be layed
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con of external fertilization
indirect reduces changes of fertilization female must lay many eggs
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sperm characteristics | (external fertilization)
flagella - to swim through water to eggs
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Internal Fertilization who
terrestrial vertebrates
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internal fertilization pros
direct route increase chance of success female produces fewer eggs
90
factors affecting number of eggs produced by female (3 factors)
1. internal vs. external fertilization 2. early development outside/inside mother's body 3. amount of prenatal care after birth
91
Human Reproduction | (4 components)
1. Male Reproductive Physiology 2. Female Reproductive Physiology 3. Female Sex Hormones 4. The Menstrual Cycle
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Male Reproductive Physiology Sperm pass from: (SEVEn UP)
seminiferous tubules --\> testes --\> vas deferens --\> ejaculatory duct --\> urethra --\> penis
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http://www.maleinfertilitycure.com/image/intro\_to\_male\_infertility.jpg male reproductive anatomy
94
testes located in
scrotum - external pouch
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scrotum
maintains testes temp 2-4C lower than body temp (essential for sperm survival)
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urethra
passes through penis opens to outside at tip serves for reproductive and excretory systems
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testes re hormones
production of testosterone
98
testosterone
regulates male sex characteristics (facial and pubic hair, voice changes, etc)
99
Female Reproductive Anatomy
ovaries --\> releases immature ovum --\> abdominal cavity ---\> oviduct ---\> fallopian tube --\> uterus --\> cervix --\> vaginal canal --\> open world
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ovaries (location)
in abdominal cavity below digestive system
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ovaries consist of:
thousands of follicles
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once a month, the ovary
releases an immature ovum into the abdominal cavity
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follicle | (form and function)
multilayered sac of cells contains, nourishes, protects immature ovum
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follicle cells produce
estrogen
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uterus
muscular chamber site of fetal development
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cervix
lower, narrow end of uterus connects with vaginal canal
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vaginal canal
site of sperm deposition during intercourse passageway through which baby expelled
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at birth | (re: eggs)
all eggs that female will ovulate are present (no production throughout lifetime)
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Female Sex Hormones synthesized and secreted by
ovaries
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female sex hormones are
estrogens progesterone
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secretion of estrogen and prostegerone regulated by:
LH FSH
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LH FSH regulated by
GnRH
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Estrogens (Female Sex Hormones) are and cause (5)
* steroid hormones * cause: 1. female menstruation 2. dev reproductive tract 3. dev secondary sexual characteristics 4. sex drive 5. thickening of endometrium (uterine wall)
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estrogens are secreted by
1. ovarian follicles 2. corpus luteum
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progesterone (female sex hormones) are and cause (1)
steroid hormone dev maintenance of endometrial walls ---\> prep for implantation
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progesterone secreted by
corpus luteum
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progesterone secreted during
luteal phase | (menstraul cycle)
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Menstrual Cycle hormones secreted by
1. ovaries 2. hypothalamus 3. anterior pituitary
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menstrual cycle duration
puberty --\> menopause monthly cyclical
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Menstrual Cycle Phases
1. Follicular 2. Ovulation 3. Luteal 4. Menstruation
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Follicular Phase | (menstrual cycle)
1. cessation of menstrual flow 2. FSH promotes dev of follicle 3. follicle grows, secretes estrogen
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FSH released by | (follicular phase)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone anterior pituitary
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Ovulation | (menstrual cycle)
1. peak in estrogen levels ---\> surge in LH 2. triggered by LH surge at midcycle 3. mature ovarian follicle bursts 4. releases ovum
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Luteal Phase | (menstrual cycle)
1. LH induces ruptured follicle ---\> corpus luteum 2. CL secretes estrogen, progesterone 3. Progesterone --\> glands of endometrium to mature 4. glands of endometrium --\> secretions to prep for implantation of embryo 5. LH, FSH inhibited
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LH
Luteinizing Hormone
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corpus luteum secretes
estrogen, progesterone during luteal phase
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progesterone and estrogen essential during luteal phase for
maintenance of endometrium
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Menstruation if ovum not fertilized (menstrual cycle)
1. corpus luteum atrophies 2. drop in progesterone and estrogen 3. endometrium + superficial blood vessels slough off 4. menses 5. LH + FSH begin to rise again
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menses
menstrual flow
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Menstruation (menstrual cycle) if fertilization occurs
1. developing placenta produces hCG 2. hCG maintains corpus luteum 3. estrogen, progesterone maintained 4. uterus maintained 5. until placenta takes over production of e + p
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hCG
human chorionic gonadotrophin
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Asexual Reproduction
reproduction w/o fertilization
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new organisms formed by | (asexual reproduction)
division of single parent cell carbon copies of parent cells
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offspring are not identical to parent cells in asexual reproduction when
random mutations
135
Types of asexual reproduction
* fission * budding * regeneration * parthenogenesis
136
Prokaryotes reproduce
asexually
137
in animals, asexual rep more common in
invertebrates
138
all plants use | (reproduction)
asexual reproduction
139
Binary Fission process (asexual reproduction)
* DNA replicates * plasma membrane and cell wall grow inward along midline of cell * divide into 2 = parts * contain cytoplasm + duplicate of parent cell
140
binary fission occurs in
prokaryotes some primitive eukaryotes one-celled oganisms e.g. amoebae, paramecia, algae, bacteria
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Budding produces (asexual reproduction)
replication of nucleus **unequal** cytokinesis
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Budding process
1. cell membrane pinches inward 2. new cell forms 3. new cell smaller, genetically identical to parent cell 4. new cell grows to adult size
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Budding | (two options for growth of new cell)
1. separate immediately 2. remain attached, develop as outgrowth, separate later
144
Budding occurs in
hydra yeast
145
Regeneration (definition) (asexual reproduction)
regrowth or lost/injured body part
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regeneration process
mitosis
147
extent of regeneration
some lower animals --\> extensive capabilities e.g. starfish - may regenerate body from arm arm must include **central disk ** e.g. salamanders/tadpokes regenerate new limbs - extend depends on nerve damage to severed body part
148
central disk | (starfish)
body control center center of body, from which radiate arms
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Parthenogenesis definition (asexual reproduction)
dev. of unfertilized egg into adult organism
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parthenogenesis occurs naturaly in
some lower organisms
151
e.g. of parthenogenesis most species of bees and ants
male bees via parthenogenesis worker and queen bees via fertilized eggs
152
artificial parthenogenesis
eggs of rabit + frogs stimulated by electric shock or pin-prick
153
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
alternation of generations 2N sporophyte gen N gametophyte gen
154
length of gen in plant sexual rep
relative lengths of two stages vary with plant type evo trend --\> increased dominance of sporophyte gen
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Cycle of plant sexual rep
Sporophyte 2N --\> Spore 1N --\> Gametophyte 1N --\> fertilization 1N + 1N gametes --\> Sporophyte 2N
156
Gametophyte Generation | (Plant sexual rep)
haploid gametophyte gen produces gametes via mitosis
157
fertilization (gametophyte generation - plant sexual rep)
male and female gametes at fertilization restores diploid sporophyte generation
158
gametophyte gen vs. sporophyte gen
gametophytes rep sexually sporophytes rep asexually
159
Biology
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