1
Q
2 Main Functions of the Urinary System
A
- Osmotic Regulation = Regulating osmotic pressure of H20 & other body fluids
- Elimination of nitrogenous & other wastes
2
Q
4 Different Types of Nitrogenous Wastes
A
- Amino Acids
- Ammonia
- Urea
- Uric Acid
3
Q
Amino Acids
A
- 4 Uses:
1. Protein synthesis
2. ATP synthesis
3. Gluconeogenesis
4. Fat synthesis - Amine (NH2) groups must be removed before 2, 3, or 4
4
Q
Ammonia
A
- NH2 groups + hydrogen = Ammonia (NH3)
- Very toxic
- Excreted by fish & amphibians
- NH3 + H20 -> NH4+ + OH- = ammonium hydroxide
5
Q
Urea
A
-Main nitrogenous waste excreted by mammals
-Less toxic than ammonia
-Synthesis requires significant amounts of energy
-Is an amino acid
*Liver urea cycle:
CO2 + 2NH3 + ATP -> Urea + H2O
6
Q
Uric Acid
A
- Excreted by birds, reptiles & insects
- Relatively non-toxic
- Low water-solubility
- Synthesis is energy-demanding
- Nucleic acid metabolism: purines (G & A) -> xanthine hypoxanthine -> uric acid
7
Q
4 Components of the Human Urinary System
A
- Kidneys (pair)
- Ureters (pair)
- Urinary Bladder
- Urethra
8
Q
Kidneys
A
- Shaped like kidney-beans
- Location: paravertebral & retroperitoneal; below diaphragm
9
Q
3 Layers Surrounding Kidneys
A
- Renal Capsule: Around outside of kidney
- Adipose Capsule: Surrounds renal capsule
- Renal Fascia: CT outside of adipose capsule
10
Q
Hilum
A
Concave depression at center of kidney
11
Q
Nephroptosis
A
- AKA “Floating Kidney”
- Occurs due to weakening of renal fascia & adipose tissue
- Can lead to hydronephrosis
12
Q
Hydronephrosis
A
Atrophy of the kidneys, leading to renal failure
13
Q
3 Areas of the Kidney
A
- Cortex
- Medulla
- Pelvis
* All 3 are composed of parenchyma & supporting stroma
14
Q
Renal Cortex
A
- Granular outer & juxtamedullary areas
- Composed of renal columns
15
Q
Renal Medulla
A
- Striated, located in the middle area
- Composed of renal pyramids
16
Q
Renal Pelvis
A
- Hollow, inner area for urine collection (via minor calyces)
- Renal sinus = fat-filled cavity
17
Q
8 Functions of the Kidneys
A
- Regulates blood & ECF electrolytes
- Regulates blood volume
- Regulates blood pH
- Removes toxic wastes & foreign substances from blood
- Regulates blood pressure
- Maintains blood osmolarity
- Produce hormones (calcitriol, EPO)
- Helps regulate blood glucose via glycogenolysis, glycogenesis & gluconeogenesis
18
Q
Nephrons
A
- Functional units of the kidneys
- 2 main components
19
Q
2 Main Components of the Nephrons
A
- Renal Corpuscle
2. Renal Tubule
20
Q
Renal Corpuscle (2 Parts)
A
- Bowman’s Capsule
2. Glomerulus
21
Q
Bowman’s Capsule
A
- AKA “Glomerular Capsule”
- Cuplike structure, which receives glomerular filtrate
- 2 Layers: visceral layer & parietal layer
- Capsular Space/ “Bowman’s Space” = Space between visceral & parietal layers; receives glomerular filtrate
22
Q
Glomerulus
A
Capillary tuft surrounded by visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule
23
Q
Filtration Membrane of the Glomerulus (3 Parts)
A
- Fenestrated Glomerular Endothelium
- Glomerular Basement Membrane
- Slit Membrane
24
Q
Fenestrated Glomerular Endothelium
A
- Permeable to plasma components
- Contains mesangial cells; regulate the surface area available for filtration
25
Glomerular Basement Membrane
- Impermeable to larger proteins
| - Heparan sulfate prevents passage of albumin into urinary filtrate
26
Slit Membrane
- Supported by filtration slits, formed by pedicels of podocytes
- Impermeable to medium-sized proteins
* Albumin may penetrate, if not already excluded by heparan sulfate
27
Renal Tubule (4 Parts)
1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
2. Nephron Loop
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule
4. Connecting Tubule
28
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
- Part of renal tubule close to renal corpuscle
| - Made of simple cuboidal cells w/ long apical microvilli (For increased surface area)
29
Nephron Loop
- Consists of descending & ascending limbs
- Descending limb & proximal thin portion of ascending limb = simple squamous epith.
- Thick portion of ascending limb (TAL) = cuboidal & columnar epith.
30
Macula Densa
Area where TAL contacts afferent arteriole
31
Juxtaglomerular (JG) Cells
Cells that secrete renin
32
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)
- Composed of macula densa + JG cells
| - Helps regulate blood pressure
33
Distal Convoluted Tubule
- Part of renal tubule distant from renal corpuscle
| - Composed of cuboidal epithelium
34
Connecting Tubule
Links nephron to collecting duct
35
2 Cell Types in Connecting Tubule & Collecting Duct
1. Principal Cells: Aldosterone-sensitive & ADH-sensitive cells
2. Intercalated Cells w/ H+ ATP=ase pumps
36
2 Types of Nephrons
1. Cortical Nephrons
| 2. Juxtamedullary Nephrons
37
Cortical Nephrons
- 80-85% of all nephrons
- Glomeruli + PCT + DCT + CT in outer 1/3 of cortex
- Short nephron loops
- Peritubular capillary network (arises from efferent arteriole); surrounds loops
38
Juxtamedullary Nephrons
- Enable concentration of urine
- Glomeruli + PCT + DCT + CT near cortical-medullary boundary
- Long nephron loops -> almost to renal papillae
- Loops surrounded by long vasa recta
39
Collecting Ducts
- Have cortical & medullary segments
- Consist of principal & intercalated cells
- Several CTs link to a single CD in the cortex
- CD conducts urine to papillary duct -> renal pelvis
40
Renal Pyramids
- Cone-shaped, striated kidney areas
- Inverted pyramid shape
- Striations = nephron loops, CDs & papillary ducts; converge on a minor renal calyx
* Several Minor Calyces -> a Major Calyx -> Renal Pelvis -> Ureter -> Urinary Bladder
41
Renal Columns
Cortex between renal pyramids
42
Renal Papilla
Apex of renal pyramid
43
Renal Lobe
Renal pyramid + overlying cortex + 1/2 of two adjacent renal columns
44
Overview of Renal "Plumbing"
- 1 mil. nephrons/kidney
- 10 nephrons/collecting duct
- 100k collecting ducts/kidney
- 250 collecting ducts/papillary duct
- 30 papillary ducts/renal papilla
45
Nephrons' Blood Supply
Aorta -> R & L Renal Artery -> Segmental arteries -> Interlobar arteries -> Arcuate arteries -> Cortical Radiate arteries -> Afferent Arteriole -> Glomerulus -> Efferent Arteriole -> Peritubular Capillary network (including vasa recta) -> Cortical Radiate veins -> Arculate veins -> Interlobar veins -> Segmental veins -> R & L Renal Vein -> Inferior Vena Cava
46
3 Processes of Urine Formation
1. Glomerular Filtration (F)
2. Tubular Reabsorption (R)
3. Tubular Secretion (S)
47
Rate of Urinary Excretion of a Solute
Filtration Rate + Secretion Rate - Reabsorption Rate
48
Glomerular Filtration
- Hydrostatic pressure causes small water-soluble molecules move into Bowman's space -> glomerular filtrate
- Blood cells & most plasma proteins usually excluded from glomerular filtrate by the 3 part filtration membrane
- Daily volume of glomerular filtrate = 150 - 180 L
- Urine volume/day = 1-2 L
49
Filtration Fraction
- Percentage of plasma volume entering afferent arteriole that becomes glomerular filtrate
- Normal: 16 -20%
- FF Increased in glomerulonephritis
50
Determinants of Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
1. Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (GBHP)
2. Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)
3. Blood Colloidal Osmotic PRessure (BCOP)
51
Equation of NFP
NFP = GBHP - CHP - BCOP
| *Normally, GBHP = 55mmHg, CHP = 15mmHg, BCOP = 30 mmHg; NFP = 10 mmHg
52
Glomerular Filtration Rate
- Total volume of filtrate produced by renal corpuscles of the two kidneys in one minute
- Approx. 125 mL/min (males)
- Approx. 105 mL/min (females)
- To maintain homeostasis, GFR should remain fairly constant over a wide range of arterial pressures
- If too fast, essential solutes lost in urine
- If too slow, excess solutes & wastes reabsorbed into blood
53
NFP Changes
- Lead to changes in glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
* Glomerulonephritis -> Decreased BCOP -> Increased NFP -> Increased GFR
* Hemorrhage/shock -> Decreased BP -> Decreased GBHP -> Decreased NFP -> Decreased GFR
* Nephrolithiasis -> Increased CHP -> Decreased NFP -> Decreased GFR
54
3 Methods of GFR Regulation
1. Renal Autoregulation
2. Hormonal Regulation
3. Neural Regulation
55
Renal Autoregulation
-Ability of kidneys to maintain a constant BP & GFR despite changes in systemic blood pressure
56
2 Mechanisms of Renal Autoregulation
1. Myogenic Mechanism
| 2. Tubulo-glomerular Feedback Mechanism
57
Myogenic Mechanism
Increased BP -> Increased renal blood flow & glomerular blood flow -> Increased GFR & Afferent arteriole stretch -> VC -> Decreased GBF & RBF -> Decreased GFR
58
Tubulo-glomerular Feedback Mechanism
Decreased BP -> Decreased NFP & GFR -> Decreased tubular flow rate -> PCT & Loop of Henle reabsorb more salt & H2O -> Decreased [Na+] in fluid seen by macula densa of JGA -> Increased NO release -> Vasodilation -> Increased glomerular blood flow -> Increased NFP & GFR -> Increased [Na+]
59
2 Hormones for Hormonal GFR Regulation
1. Angiotensin 2
| 2. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
60
Angiotensin 2
Goes to afferent arteriole VC -> Decreased renal blood flow & glomerular blood flow -> Decreased GFR -> Decreased tubular flow rate -> Increased salt & H2O reabsorption in PCT & nephron loop -> Increased blood pressure
61
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (GFR Regulation)
Cause increased blood volume -> Increased atrial wall stretch -> ANP release -> Relaxation of mesangial cells -> Increased glomerular surface area -> Increased GFR (salt & H2O excretion -> Decreased blood volume)
62
Neural Regulation of GFR
- In fight/flight, sympathetic VC fibers -> decreased glomerular blood flow & decreased GFR
- Leads to decreased urine output & increased blood to muscles, heart & brain
- Also, decreased GFR -> Decreased tubular flow rate -> PCT & nephron loop reabsorb more salt & H2O -> Increased salt & H2O in blood -> Increased BP
63
Tubular Reabsorption
- To maintain homeostasis, H2O, nutrients, ions, etc must be selectively reabsorbed from urinary filtrate to blood
- Occurs mostly in PCT
- Active or passive transport
- 2 reabsorption routes: transcellular & paracellular
- PCT cells: lumenal microvilli & many mitochondria
64
Transport Maximum
Maximum amount of substance reabsorbed per unit time
| *Example: Glycosuria in diabetes mellitus -> Osmotic diuresis -> Polyuria
65
Obligatory H2O Reabsorption
When H2O follows reabsorbed solutes, primarily glucose & Na+ due to osmotic gradients that are created between the filtrate and the ICF of the renal tubular cells
66
Facultative H2O Reabsorption
When the permeability of the DCT and CD cells to H2O is directly controlled by ADH
67
Tubular Secretion
Process that adds non-filtered wastes to tubular fluid (e.g. ions, toxins drugs, nitrogenous wastes)
68
PCT (Reabsorption & Secretion)
- "Early" PCT sites use Na+ symporters
- Na+/H+ antiporters are also used
- HCO3- ions are reabsorbed
- H2O reabsorption in "early" PCT -> reabsorption of ions & urea in "late" PCT
- Urea & NH3 are nitrogenous wastes that are reabsorbed
69
Aquaporin-1
- Water pores
| - Found in the PCT
70
Nephron Loop (Reabsorption & Secretion)
- Fluid is still isotonic
- Thin descending limb of nephron loop is permeable to H2O but impermeable to solute
- Thin & thick ascending limbs are impermeable to H2O but permeable to solute
- Different sites for electrolyte & H2O reabsorption -> independent regulation of urinary volume & urinary osmolarity
- TAL has a Na+/K+/2Cl- symporter
- K+ leaks back into tubular lumen -> interstitial fluid becomes negatively charged, attracting Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2 from the lumen into the interstitial fluid
- Since TAL is H2O impermeable, electrolyte reabsorption -> fluid osmolarity drops
71
"Early DCT" (Reabsorption & Secretion)
- Na+/Cl- symporters found in early DCT
| - Also site of PTH-stimulated Ca+2 reabsorption
72
"Late DCT" (Reabsorption & Secretion)
2 Cell Types for Reabsorption & Secretion:
- 1. Aldosterone-sensitive Principal Cells
- 2. Intercalated Cells
73
Aldosterone-sensitive Principal Cells (Reabsorption & Secretion)
- Unequally "exchange" Na+ for K+
- This mechanism = apical membrane Na+ & K+ leak channels
- Main mechanism for eliminating excess K+ ions
- ADH-sensitivity -> Increased H2O reabsorption
74
Intercalated Cells (Reabsorption & Secretion)
Reabsorb K+ & HCO3- and secrete H+
75
2 Tests for Evaluating Kidney Function
1. Urinalysis
| 2. Blood Tests
76
Urinalysis
Tests used to analyze urine composition
77
3 Factors Analyzed in Blood Tests
1. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)
2. Plasma Creatinine
3. Renal Plasma Clearance
78
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)
Increased levels of BUN is a diagnosis for certain kidney diseases
79
Plasma Creatinine
- Breakdown of skeletal muscle creatine phosphate
| - If creatine rises . 1.5 mg/dL -> Poor renal function
80
Renal Plasma Clearance
- Reflects ability of kidneys to remove a specific substance from blood
* Renal plasma clearance affected by filtration, reabsorption & secretion
- Normal renal plasma clearance of glucose = 0mL/min
- Renal plasma clearance of urea = 70mL/min
* Renal plasma clearance of a filtered substance (which is not reabsorbed/secreted) approximates the GFR
- Renal plasma clearance of creatinine = 120-140mL/min
- Renal plasma clearance of insulin = 125 mL/min
81
Equation for Renal Plasma Clearance
- U = Urinary concentration of a substance (mg/mL)
- P = Plasma concentration of a substance (mg/mL)
- V = Urine flow rate (mL/min)
- U x V / P (in mL/min)
82
Mechanisms for Control of Rena H2O Excretion
- 90% obligatory H2O reabsorption (linked to solute reabsorption)
- 10% facultative H2O reabsorption (ADH-regulated in CT & CD)
83
Counter-current Mechanism
- Required to excrete very hypertonic urine
- Fluid flows in parallel tubes in opposite directions
- Exchange of H2O & solutes between tubes & slow flow rate (both have similar compositions)
- Seen in vasa recta
- Occurs due to juxtamedullary nephrons & vasa recta
- This mechanism -> kidneys able to excrete iso-osmolar, hypo-osmolar, hyper-osmolar urine
84
2 Components of Counter-current Mechanism
1. Counter-current Multiplier
| 2. Counter-current Exchanger
85
Counter-current Multiplier (CCM)
=Ascending & descending limbs of nephron loops of J-M nephrons
* Thich Ascending Limb = impermeable to H2O, actively transports NaCl via lumenal Na+/K+/2Cl- co-porter
* Descending Limb = H2O permeable & solute impermeable
86
Physiology of CCM (7 Steps)
1. Na+ & Cl- pumped out of TAL into peritubular fluid
2. Osmolarity of peritubular fluid increases near descending limb
3. H2O flows from descending limb to peritubular fluid
4. Increased [solute] in descending limb
5. Very concentrated solution accumulates in ascending limb -> Increased NaCL transport into peritubular fluid (medullary concentration gradient: 300-1,200 mOsmol/L)
6. Urea recycling in deep medulla reinforces salt gradient
7. Hypotonic fluid arrives at DCT
87
Counter-current Exchanger
- Vasa recta = capillaries running parallel w/ nephron loops of J-M nephrons
- Vasa recta maintain medullary concentration gradient while delivering nutrient blood supply
- Vasa recta has very slow blood flow + freely permeable to H2O & salt; leads to complete equilibrium between blood & interstitial fluid
- As blood flows into inner medulla, H2O lost & salt gained
- As blood flows back toward the cortex, H2O gained & salt lost
- Removal of solutes & H2O by vasa recta balances rates of solute & H2O reabsorption by tubule; leads to medullary concentration gradient protected & reabsorbed H2O/solutes returned to general circulation
88
2 Benefits of the CCM
1. Method for reabsorbing solutes/H2O before the fluid reaches CT & CD
2. Concentration gradient in medulla allow ADH-dependent H2O reabsorption from CT & CD
89
ADH & H2O Reabsorption
- ADH -> Increased CT & CD permeability to H2O (due to insertion of aquaporin-2)
- H2O uptake is osmotically-driven through these H2O channels, and would not occur w/o the presence of salt gradient set up in the medullary intestitium by the CCM
- If blood osmotic pressure increases -> ADH release by posterior pituitary
- If blood osmotic pressure decreases -> No ADH released -> diuresis (increased urine output)
90
Diabetes Insipidus
Diabetes caused by lack of ADH, causing polyuria, leading to excessive H2O loss
91
5 Drugs Affecting H2O Balance
1. Ethanol: Inhibits ADH secretion -> diuresis
2. Caffeine: Inhibits Na+ reabsorption by renal tubule
3. Furosemide: Blocks Na+/K+/2Cl- co-porter of TAL
4. Thiazides: Block Na+/Cl- symporter in DCT
5. IV mannitol: Blocks PCT Na+ uptake
* Diuretic drugs = hypertensive; lead to increased urine, decreased blood volume & pressure
92
4 Hormonal Regulators of Reabsorption & Secretion
1. ADH (Covered in ADH & Reabsorption)
2. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
3. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
4. Parathyroid Hormone
93
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RAA) System (4 Steps)
1. Release of renin by JGA
2. Renin converts Angiotensinogen -> Angiotensin I
3. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) converts Angiontensin I -> Angiotensin II
4. Vasoconstriction, increased Na+ reabsorption + increased aldosterone release by adrenal cortex
* Activated by hemorrhaging, Na+ deficiency, or dehydration
* System works to increase BP back to normal levels
* Hypertension may result if mechanism defective -> continual stimulation of RAA system
94
Aldosterone & Kidneys
- Aldosterone = adrenal cortex hormone (mineralocorticoid)
- Function Na+ & K+ homeostasis
- Mechanism: Principal cells of the CT & CD reabsorb Na+ & secrete K+ due to aldosterone-inducible insertion of channels & pumps)
- Since [Na+] > [K+] -> lumenal negative potential -> H+ pumping by intercalated cells of CT & CD to re-establish charge balance
- Mechanism produces what looks like Na+ for K+ or H+ exchange
- Leads to increased blood Na+, increased Cl- & H2O reabsorption & increased blood volume & pressure
95
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (Reabsorption & Secretion)
- Increased blood volume -> atrial release of ANP -> decreased blood volume via:
1. ANP -> mesangial cell relaxation -> increased glomerular capillary surface available for pressure filtration -> increased GFR
2. Inhibition of PCT & CD Na+ H2O reabsorption
3. Inhibition of aldosterone & ADH Secretion
96
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
- Decreased blood Ca+2 levels -> PTH release -> increased reabsorption of Ca+2 in DCT
- PTH inhibits phosphate reabsorption in PCT
97
3 Processes of Blood pH Regulation
1. H+ secretion
2. HCO3- reabsorption
3. HCO3- secretion
* Acidic blood -> 1 & 2 increases + 3 decreases
* Basic blood -> 1 & 2 decreases + 3 increases
98
Kidney Dialysis
Treatment of temporary or permanent renal failure
99
2 Types of Kidney Dialysis
1. Hemodialysis
| 2. Peritoneal Dialysis
100
Hemodialysis
- Patient's heparinized blood is passed through a semipermeable membranous tube in contact w/ dialysate
- Substances in high concentration in blood move into the dialysate
- 50-250 g urea can be removed by 4-6 hour dialysis treatment
- Done 2-3 times/week
101
6 Drawbacks of Hemodialysis
1. Anticoagulant use
2. Hemolysis
3. Infection risk & possible septicemia
4. Restriction of dietary fluid & protein
5. Time consuming
6. Loss of nutrients, hormones, etc.
102
Peritoneal Dialysis
- Dialysis fluid is run into peritoneal cavity
- Peritoneal membranes = dialysis membrane
- 4-5 exchanges/day (each exchange = 4=6 hours)
- Drawback: peritonitis
103
Ureters
- Retroperitoneal tubes from kidneys -> urinary bladder
| - Function: Transport urine from kidney to bladder via peristaltic contractions
104
3 Layers of the Ureters
1. Mucosa: Transitional epithelium + goblet cells + lamina propria
2. Muscularis: Smooth muscle (inner longitudinal + outer circular); causes peristalsis
3. Adventitia: Fibrous outer coat
105
Vesico-uretal Sphincters
- Long intra-mural segment = a good valve; as bladder fills, ureter compressed closed
- Short intra-mural segment = a poor valve
- If sphincter defective, ascending infection -> Pyelonephritis (inflammation of kidney tissue, calyces and renal pelvis)
106
Urinary Bladder
- Distensible muscular sac behind pubis symphysis
- Function: store urine until micturition
- 2 inlets (ureters) & 1 outlet (internal urethral orifice) -> trigone
107
3 Tunics/Coats of Bladder Wall
1. Mucosa: Made of transitional epithelium (changes as stored urine volume increases); has rugae (folds)
2. Muscularis: Detrusor muscle contractions expel urine
3. Adventitia: Has serosa = visceral peritoneum, covering top of bladder
108
Cystoscopy
=Endoscopic exam of urethra & bladder
- Assesses cancer & infection (biopsy of abnormal tissue)
- Removes calculi in urolithiasis
- Evaluates obstruction due to benign prostatic hyperplasia
109
Urinary Retention
Failure to void completely -> stasis -> possible cystitis & possible pyelonephritis
110
Bladder Atony
A large, dilated & non-emptying urinary bladder
111
Urinary Incontinence
Lack of voluntary control over micturition
112
Micturition
=Urination
- Result of relaxation of internal urethral sphincter (involuntary) & external urethral sphincter (voluntary)
- Also involves detrusor muscle contraction
113
5 Types of Urinary Incontinence
1. Stress: Represents weak control of external urethral sphincter
2. Overflow: Continuous dribble of urine released from overly full bladder
3. Urgency: Failure to restrain urine discharge
4. Functional: Person recognizes the need to urinate but is unable to get to the toilet
5. Total: Return to pre-potty training state
114
Urethra
Tube from urinary bladder to external urethral orifice
115
Gender Differences Between Male & Female Urethra
- Female: External urethral orifice between clitoris & vagina
- Male: External urethral orifice opens at tip of glans penis
116
3 Segments of Male Urethra
1. Prostatic Urethra
2. Intermediate Urethra
3. Spongy Urethra; passes through penis within the corpus spongiosum
117
Histology of the Urethra
1. Mucosa; consists of:
- transitional epithelium
- stratified/pseudostratified columnar epith.
- non-keratinized stratified squamous epith.
2. Muscularis
- Inner layer = circular
- Outer layer = longitudinal
3. Adventitia
- Made of areolar CT
BIOL1191
flashcards
Decks in class (13)
# Cards
-
Chapter 12 - Nervous System115
-
Chapter 14 - Brain & Cranial Nerves (Cranial Nerves)37
-
Chapter 13 - Spinal Cord & Spinal Nerves57
-
Chapter 14 - Brain & Cranial Nerves32
-
Chapter 14 - Brain & Cranial Nerves (Detailed Look)107
-
Chapter 15 - Autonomic Nervous System38
-
Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor & Integrative Systems90
-
Chapter 17 - Special Senses137
-
Chapter 23 - Respiratory System124
-
Chapter 26 - Urinary System117
-
Chapter 28 - Reproductive Systems138
-
Chapter 29 - Development & Inheritance145
-
Chapter 27 - Fluid, Electrolyte & Acid-base Homeostasis67
