List and describe the state of matter
Liquid
Gas
Solid
Plasma
Define Atoms and explain what the atomic number and atomic mass number of an atom means
Atoms- Smallest units of matter that retain the characteristics of a particular element
Atomic number- Number of protons in an atom’s nucleus
Atomic mass number- Sum of neutrons and protons in the nucleus
Define isotopes
- variance of an element each with a different atomic mass number
- Number of neutrons vary
Define bonding and list and discuss the different types giving examples of each
Bonding- Two or more atoms joining together to form a compound
*causes by interactions between electrons around atoms
- Bonding of ionic compounds
- transfer of electrons till the outer shell is complete
*ions or either positive or negative
- opposite charges attract
Example: sodium chloride
Covalent bonding
- sharing Of electrons to complete the outer shell
- electron shells overlap
Example: Carbon atoms in diamonds and graphite
- carbon needs four electrons so four covalent bonds are formed
- silicates: silicon-oxygen bonds are partly covalent and partly ionic
-Metallic bonding
* Electrons in some metals on mobile in readily shift from one atom to another
Example: Metals such as gold, silver, and copper
*Accounts for characteristics such as metallic luster, good conductivity of electricity and heat and easy malleability
-Van der Waals bonding
*Electricity neutral atoms and the molecules have weak attractive forces
*No free electrons
Example: graphite in pencils
What is an ion? What is the difference between cations and anions?
Define a mineral and discuss each part of the definition
- Naturally occurring, inorganic substances
- Naturally occurring: Excludes all manufactured substances
- Inorganic: Organisms that do not comprise complex carbon-based molecules
- Crystalline solids
- Constituent atoms are arranged in a three-dimensional framework
- Determimed by their cleavage and the constancy of interfacial angles
- Cleavage: the property of breaking or splitting repeatedly along smooth closely spaced planes
- Crystals have a regular geometric shape
- planar surfaces (crystal faces)
- sharp corners
- straight edges
- Narrowly defined chemical composition
- Some minerals have a range of compositions because one element can substitute for another if the atoms of two or more elements are nearly the same size and the same charge
- Characteristic physical properties
- hardness, color, and crystal form
The bulk of the earth’s crust is made up of eight chemical elements which two are the most abundant?
Silicon and oxygen
What are silicates? What is the basic building block of silicate minerals? What are the two groups of silicates?
- A combination of silicon and oxygen
- Silica Tetrahedron
- Ferromagnesian silocates & Nonferromagnesian
Define the four structures that silicate tetrahedra can form
-Isolated tetrahedra: no oxygen atoms shared
-Continuous chains of tetrahedra: each tetrahedra shares two oxygen atoms with adjacent tetrahedra
single chains linked by sharing oxygen atoms
- Continuous sheets: three oxygen atoms shared with adjacent tetrahedra
- Three-dimensional networks: all four oxygen atoms in tetrahedra shared
Explain how ferromagnesian and non-ferromagnesian differ from each other. Give examples of each
-Ferromagnesian contain iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg) or both
-Usually dark and more dense than nonferromagnesian silicates
Example: olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, biotite
-Nonferromagnesian lacks iron and magnesium
-light colored
- less dense than ferromagnesian
Example: potassium feldspars (feldspars are most common mineral in earth’s crust) and quartz
Define the carbonate, sulfates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates, halides, and native element groups of minerals.
-Carbonate (CO3)-2
minerals such as calcite and aragonite include calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
*chemical alterations of aragonite to calcite from limestone
*dolomite from chemical alterations of calcite is found in dolostone
-Sulfates (SO42-)
*metal cations bonded to a sulfate anionic group
*many sulfates form by evaporation of seawater
Example: gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4)
-Oxides (O2-)
*metal cations bonded to oxygen (Fe2+, Fe3+, Ti2+)
Examples: magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), and rutile (TiO2)
-Sulfides (S-)
*metal cations bonded to a sulfide anion
Examples: pyrite (FeS2), galena (Pbs) and sphalerite (ZnS)
-Phosphates (PO4-3)
-Halides (Cl- or F-)
*minerals are classified by their dominant anion
Examples: fluorite (CaF2) and halite (NaCl)
-Native elements (Cu, Au, Ag)
*pure masses of a single metal
Examples: copper (Cu) and gold (Au)
Define the seven main physical properties used to identify minerals and explain how each property is useful in identifying minerals
- Luster
- Color
- Streak
- Hardness
- Specific gravity
- Crystal habit
- Fracture or cleavage
-Luster
*Quality and intensity Of light reflected from a mineral surface
-Types
*Metallic: having the appearance of a metal
*Nonmetallic
•glassy(vitreous)
•dull or earthy
•pearly or silky
•resinous
•brilliant
*Ferromagnesian silicates are typically black, brown, or dark green although olivine is olive green
*Nonferromagnesian silicates vary in color but are rarely very dark
- Color
- Color of minerals what a metallic luster is more consistent than is the color of nonmetallic minerals
- not a diagnostic property
- due to trace amounts of impurities a given mineral can show different colors
-Streak
*Color of a powder produce by crushing a mineral
* obtained by scraping a mineral on unglazed porcelain
•Streak Color is less variable than crystal color
•Important means of identification for metallic minerals
- Hardness
- ability to resist being scratched by other substances
- controlled mostly by internal structure
- hardness compared to the Mohs scale for hardness
-Specific Gravity
* ratio of a minerals weight to the weight of an equal volume of pure water at 4 degrees celsius
*
Specific gravity is “heft” - how heavy it feels
•Galena - heavy (SG 7.60).
•Quartz - light (SG 2.65).
*Galena “feels” heavier than quartz
-Crystal Form
*Number of sides
* different minerals can have the same form
Not a diagnostic property
-Cleavage
* tendency to break along planes of weaker atomic bonds
* cleavage produces flat shiny surfaces
* describe by the number of plates and their angles
* sometimes mistaken for crystal habit
• cleavage planes can be repeated whereas a crystal face is a single surface
-Fracture
* minerals break in ways that reflect atomic bonding
* fracturing implies equal bond strength in all directions
* fracture surfaces or uneven or conchoidal (curved) rather than smooth
•Example: quartz displays conchoidal fracture
• shaped like the inside of a clam shell
• breaks along smooth curved surfaces
• produces extremely sharp edges
•volcanic glass was unused by native cultures to make tools
Define a rock and explain why only a few minerals are sufficiently common for rock identification and classification
Rock: solid aggregate of one or more minerals
• also refers to masses of mineral like matter
- Rock forming minerals: any mineral comment in rocks that is important in the identification and classification
Define a resource and reserve. Explain how resources differ from reserves
Resource: naturally occurring concentration of solid, liquid, or gaseous material in, or on, earth‘s crust in such form and amount the economic extraction of commidity is feasible
• The total amount of a commodity whether discovered or not
*Examples
• minerals
• Rocks
• liquid petroleum
• natural gas

Reserve: part of the resource base that is known and can be recovered at an economically feasible cost
* factors to be considered when classifying a commodity as a reserve
• Transportation costs
• Labor costs
• market price
• Technology changes
Explain how the distribution of natural resources and reserve impacts on global politics and international trade
- most are non-renewable and imported
• Some of these are imported from politically unstable regions - industrialized countries depend heavily on these resources
• uses include and are not limited to packaging, construction, electronic devices, DNA separation techniques, electronic and medical application, etc. - Avoiding depletion
• continual status assessment
• Records of mine production, imports, and exports
• use of substitutes for nonrenewable resources
Explain the different ways that minerals can form
- Cooling of magma or lava
- Hot water solutions from magma in the cracks and crevasses in adjacent rocks
- minerals are formed when water evaporates
• dissolved minerals present in seawater or lakes
• organisms construct carbonate shells - Chemical processes change composition or mineral structure to form new minerals
• agents that cause metamorphosis, heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids are responsible for the origin of many minerals
