Chapter 3 - Social Developments

Question 1

In what way was Britain in 1951?

Answer 1

It was still shaped by WW2, with visible signs of war damage.

Much of social life looked to the past, regional/class loyalties were strong, people’s origins and social background could be seen from their accent or dress.

Class attitudes were reinforced by familiar stereotypes in film and radio.

Question 2

What changes were evident by 1951?

Answer 2

War experiences brought social change, with the introduction of the welfare state.

Many attended the Festival of Britain, 1951, to commemorate war recovery and look to the future celebrating new design, culture and industry.

In the years to 1964, there were shifts in the population, growing social tension including immigration and violence and class attitudes.

Question 3

What was the state of infrastructure in 1951?

Answer 3

It was run down and needed modernisation, with a need for housing development to replace war damage and deal with decaying housing stock.

Question 4

How did housing change in the 1950s?

Answer 4

Pre-war slums were cleared and new towns built like Harlow, Essex and Kirkby, Merseyside.

New towns planned by Labour like Stevenage, Crawley, Corby and Cwmbran grew rapidly.

Shifts in population as slums cleared meant traditional communities were broken up.

Question 5

How did men’s weekly wages increase from 1951 to 1961, and how were workers impacted generally?

Answer 5

£8.30 in 1951, £15.35 in 1961.

There were massive increases in private savings farmers did well with generous subsidies.

Homeownership rose, helped by easy access to mortgages, but they were still outnumbered by renters and those living in council houses.

Question 6

Which consumer goods surged in the 50s?

Answer 6

TVs, washing machines, fridges, new furniture.

Many were bought on hire purchase.

Question 7

How did advertising change in the 1950s?

Answer 7

It rose substantially, especially after ITV was launched in 1955 and people became accustomed to glossy adverts between programmes.

Question 8

How did TV ownership change?

Answer 8

Between 1957 and 59, the number of households with a TV rose by 32%.

By 1960, there were 10 million TV sets in use.

An estimated 50% of people watched TV in the evening.

Question 9

Which changes to leisure were there?

Answer 9

TV became more important than radio.

People had more time and money to develop hobbies like DIY and gardening, popular in the 1950s.

Question 10

How did car ownership change? What impact did this have?

Answer 10

It rose by 25% from 1957 to 1959, which created greater demand for roads, including motorways.

It changed ideas of holidays and leisure. Commuting by car pushed housing developments further outside towns and cities.

Question 11

What motorways and roads were constructed in the 1950s?

Answer 11

Construction of the motorway system began in 1958 with the Preston bypass. The M1 (London-Birmingham) commenced soon after.

Between 1957 and 1963, 1200 miles of new or upgraded main roads were completed.

Question 12

How did car production change from 1948 to 1970?

Answer 12

1948: 500k
1960: 1.4m
1965: 1.75m
1970: 1.6m

Question 13

What was TV programming in the early 1950s? How did this change?

Answer 13

Broadcast from 3-6pm and 7-10:30pm, only one channel (BBC).

ITV introduced commercial TV in 1955 and the later 1950s saw a greater variety of US-style game shows and the first soap opera, Coronation Street.

The Queen’s coronation in 1953 was televised, providing a great spur to the purchase of TV sets, as 56% of the population watched the coronation on TV.

Question 14

How popular were holiday camps in the 1950s?

Answer 14

They peaked in popularity at this time, 60k people holidayed each week with Butlins, as people had both paid leave and enough disposable income to go on holiday.

Foreign holidays were possible but were enjoyed by only 2% of the population.

Butlins had popular resorts in Clacton, Skegness and Blackpool, with chalets to stay in and entertainment and other activities provided.

Question 15

What was society like in 1951?

Answer 15

Britain was deferential and conformist, with respect for authority. Class loyalties were strong at elections. 65% of working class voters voted Labour in 1951, and 80% of the middle class voted Conservative.

Question 16

What was society like by the late 1950s?

Answer 16

There were signs of a shift, hinting at the breakdown of old social restrictions and loss of deference.

The 1956 Suez Crisis exposed blatant lying and government manipulation.

The rise of CND from encouraged challenging authority. Britain appeared more individualist and less conformist. Less people were willing to follow the lead of the Establishment.

Question 17

What was The Establishment?

Answer 17

A term for informal networks connecting social and political elites. These were privileged people (mostly male) who had influence and ‘knew people who mattered’.

It included the aristocracy, politicians, civil servants, judges, bishops, diplomats, officers in the armed forces and leaders in business and the media.

Most were very well off, but wealth was subordinate to background and connections. Most came from Oxford or Cambridge, and then to positions of power and influence. Because they often went to the same schools/universities, it is sometimes called the ‘Old Boys Network’.

Question 18

How did the Profumo affair show a decline in deference?

Answer 18

Whilst security implications weren’t serious, the popular press investigated the sexual behaviour of those involved and other prominent figures.

Christine Keeler and her friend, Mandy Rice-Davies, became celebrities. Tactics of previous governments to prevent publication of sensitive or embarrasing information didn’t work.

Question 19

What was the ‘satire boom’, evident by 1960?

Answer 19

Peter Cook, Dudley Moore, Jonathan Miller and Alan Bennett made an impact with their show ‘Beyond the Fringe’.

From 1961, the Private Eye magazine established a loyal following for its witty disrespect of the great and famous.

In 1962, the ground-breaking show, ‘That Was The Week That Was’, debuted on the BBC, satirising public figures.

Question 20

How did establishment critics see their impact?

Answer 20

They saw Britain as held back by its elites. They were perceived to emphasise arts rather than sciences, blocking outside talent, and hiding its own mistakes.

The 1951 to 1964 governments seemed Establishment-dominated. Macmillan’s governments included a duke, the heir to a barony, a marquess and three earls.

Sir Alec Douglas-Home, PM from 1963 was the Earl of Home before giving up his peerage.

Question 21

How did social scientists view Britain’s class system?

Answer 21

Richard Hoggart, Anthony Sampson and C.P. Snow provided evidence of Britain’s ‘class-ridden’ society, entrenched attitudes and the lack of social mobility.

They argued Britain needed leaders who earned their position by merit and who understood the modern, technical age they were living in.

Question 22

What were the ‘angry young men’?

Answer 22

A group of writers who led the way in using the arts to attack the behaviour of the higher classes.

The first of these was ‘Look Back in Anger’ by John Osborne, staged in 1956, being very controversial, with some seeing it as groundbreaking and others as distasteful.

The writing of these men was sarcastic, bitter, intense and often bleak. Mundane settings and everyday language were used to show contemporary Britain.

Other notable works were: John Braine’s Room at the Top (1957), Harold Pinter’s The Birthday Party.

Question 23

How were women seen in the 1950s?

Answer 23

They were mainly seen as housewives in the 1950s, the ideal woman being a wife and mother.

Question 24

What statistics demonstrate women’s place in society in the 1950s?

Answer 24

The average age of marriage was 21, 75% of women were married. 1 in 5 women went to work in 1951.

The Mass Observations Survey of 700 working-class housewives captured a woman’s typical day, evidence of this.

Question 25

What was paid to women to ensure they didn't need to work?

Answer 25

Family allowance - made the welfare state based on the nuclear family and full employment for men.

Question 26

What was women's position in the workplace by 1964?

Answer 26

More women were in work, but it was still uncommon for unmarried women to work. Unions tended to not support them as it was thought they may lower wages. Many believed it would be damaging for children if mothers worked.

Question 27

What improvements were there for women in the workplace?

Answer 27

Equal pay for teachers in 1952. Equal pay for civil servants in 1954.

Question 28

How did labour-saving devices help women?

Answer 28

Between 1957 and 59 the number of households owning a washing machine rose by 54% and a fridge by 58%. It was, by one company, named the 'The Liberator', as without it washing clothes would take a full day and without a fridge, there would be more need for shopping every day.

Question 29

What ideas were spreading to Britain by the end of the Conservative governments?

Answer 29

Second-wave feminism from the US.

Question 30

What ideal was promoted at the Queen's coronation?

Answer 30

Commonwealth ideas.

Question 31

What were the impacts of the migrants from the Empire Windrush in 1948 and others at that time?

Answer 31

The number of immigrants was growing, causing social change and tensions, as many worried of the impact of too many new citizens. The Windrush itself sailed from Kingston, Jamaica to London in May 1948, carrying 492 migrants workers looking for a new life in Britain. Though numbers were small, it became a symbol of Afro-Caribbean migration to Britain. There was a continuing flow of migrants from Ireland and, starting in 1948, 250,000 immigrants arrived from the New Commonwealth.

Question 32

How many Commonwealth immigrants had settled in Britain by 1958?

Answer 32

210,000, 75% of which were male, to support families back home. Half came from the Caribbean, and 1/4 from the Indian subcontinent.

Question 33

What outward migration was there from Britain?

Answer 33

Many went to Australia, who were keen to attract new citizens, offering assisted passages and help with jobs and housing. There was also much migration to North America.

Question 34

What was inward and outward migration in the 1950s and 1960s?

Answer 34

1950s - 676k immigrants, 1.32m emigrants. 1960s - 1.25m immigrants, 1.92m emigrants.

Question 35

How did the authorities view immigration?

Answer 35

They saw it as economically desirable to fill low-wage jobs, hoping social tensions would ease over time.

Question 36

How did racial tension erupt in the 1950s?

Answer 36

In August 1958, Nottingham, gangs of white youths hunted black people after pub brawls im racially motivated attacks. Riots also broke out in Notting Hill in August. Landlords exploited competition for overcrowded, run-down housing between black and white tenants. Large mobs attacked Afro-Caribbeans, who fought back mostly in self-defence. The police response, reflecting wider discrimination, exacerbated strained relations between the police and Afro-Caribbeans.

Question 37

How did politicians use the racial tension?

Answer 37

In Notting Hill, far-right politicians like Oswald Mosley encouraged hostility to Afro-Caribbeans. As the leader of British fascism, he used the riots to stand as Union Movement candidate for Kensington North (included Notting Hill) for the 1959 election on a platform of repatriation.

Question 38

How did the government respond to racial tensions?

Answer 38

The racial violence was a problem many politicians wanted to leave alone. After the lenient 1948 Nationality Act, a new Commonwealth Immigrants Act was passed in 1962. Labour strongly opposed it but did not repeal it when in office. Britain was moving towards multiculturalism but there was no clear direction.

Question 39

When did National Service end, being two years' military conscription from 1947?

Answer 39

After 1960.

Question 40

What was youth culture affected by in the 1950s?

Answer 40

Young people had more time, with new labour-saving devices meaning girls didn't need to help mothers as much. Boys no longer had to take part in National Service from 1960.

Question 41

How was the idea of the teenager affected by the post-war baby boom?

Answer 41

It swelled the number of teenagers. A survey in 1959 estimated they were 10% of the population (5m), making them more visible and economically important.

Question 42

What was youth culture like in the 1950s?

Answer 42

Young people dressed differently to their parents, listened to new music, went to coffee bars rather than tea houses. They had money to buy records and fashion, and magazines and TV programmes were aimed at this demographic. Changes in technology helped spread the culture.

Question 43

What were the Teddy Boys that emerged in the early 1950s?

Answer 43

They were seen as a worrying phenomenon, linked with juvenile deliquency and crime. They were replaced by the Mods and Rockers in the late 1950s. It was derived from Edwardian fashion like long coats, narrow trousers and winklepickee shoes, worn by young men. The dress sense of Teddy Boys was seen as a challenge to older people and their ideas of social order.

Question 44

When did rock and roll reach Britain?

Answer 44

In 1955, with Bill Haley's Rock Around the Clock, followed by Elvis Presley.

Question 45

What were the Mods and Rockers?

Answer 45

Rockers rode heavy motorcycles, wore leather and listened to rock and roll. Mods rode scooters, wore smart suits and preferred 'sophisticated' pop music.

Question 46

What clashes were there between Mods and Rockers?

Answer 46

There were numerous clashes in the early 1960s. The event that caused a national sensation was the large-scale, organised rioting in Clacton, Margate and Brighton in May 1964. In Brighton, fighting went on for two days, with large police contingents unable to restore order.

Question 47

What was the public reaction to the clashes between Mods and Rockers?

Answer 47

It was described as a moral panic with hysterical descriptions of knife-wielding hooligans undermining the foundations of society, being vastly exaggerated.

Question 48

How were changing attitudes reflcted in film and TV?

Answer 48

Racial tension was the theme of Sapphire, a 1959 crime thriller with a portrayal of sex and violence. On TV, cosy and comforting police series Dixon of Dock Green was replaced by the realism of Z Cars, set in a new town in Merseyside. Gang violence was portrayed in Anthony Burgess' 1962 A Clockwork Orange. TV also produced campaign programmes to raise controversy over issues like Cathy Come Home, a 1962 drama about homelessness by Ken Loach.

Question 49

Which examples are there of the push to break down social taboos in the 1950s?

Answer 49

The play A Taste of Honey (1958) by Shelagh Delaney told the story of a young unmarried woman who becomes pregnant with a black sailor. Victim (1961), starring Dirk Bogarde, was the first film to use the word 'homosexual'

Question 50

What controversy was there over D.H. Lawrence's sexually explicit Lady Chatterley's Lover?

Answer 50

Penguin Books published a paperback edition of the novel in 1962, resulting in a high-profile court case under the Obscenity Act. Penguin won the case and 2 million copies were sold.

Question 51

What backlash was there to changing attitudes in the 1950s/60s?

Answer 51

Mary Whitehouse led the backlash against the new 'immorality and depravity', supported by parts of the national press. The left wing also criticised the concentration of material affluence, which had negative effects, undermining decency in society. In general, the majority opinion in Britain remained socially conservative.