Chapter 4+5

Question 1

code

Answer 1

neutral term can be used to refer to any kind of system that people employ for communication. (e.g. language, dialect, variety)

Question 2

multilingualism

Answer 2

use of different language varieties in same community (societal multilingualism) or situation (individual multilingualism)
–> the result of situations of language contact

Question 3

paradox of multilingualism

Answer 3

• Elite multilingualism: socially advantageous, involving prestigious languages that are learnt outside home.
• Plebeian/immigrant multilingualism: often stigmatised, arises due to migration

Question 4

what are contexts for language contact?

Answer 4

• urbanisation/migration
• trade, commerce, or other economic motivations
• growing up in different area from family
• mixed relationships/marriages
• seasonal work
• education (including religious education)
• radio, television, internet
• war and conquests

Question 5

language maintenance

Answer 5

linguistic groups maintain their languages with varying degrees of bi-/multilingualism

Question 6

language shift

Answer 6

language is lost as a community shifts to a different language, usually with greater dominance

Question 7

etholinguistic vitality (ELV)

Answer 7

likelihood that a given language will be transmitted inter-generationally (from parents to children)

Have to consider 3 things:
1. status: economic, historical, social
2. territorial distribution+concentration together with its population demographics (e.g. birth rates, marriage patterns, migration etc)
3. institutional support/lack thereof–> formally (media, education etc) and less formally (workplace, religious, social etc)

Question 8

languages with low ELV associated with:

Answer 8

• language shift
• immigrant language loss within 3 generations is typical
• language death

Question 9

linguistic landscape

Answer 9

the visibility and salience of a language on public and commercial signs in a given territory. (e.g. public road signs, advertising billboards, streetnames etc)

Question 10

Functions of (multilingual) linguistic sign

Answer 10

• informational
  –> marks territory inhabited by language community
  –> conveys that language can be used for communication
• symbolic
  –> conveys that a group has gained institutional control
  –> absence of a language may lead to lobby for inclusion
• Purpose of having multilingual signs:
  –> increasing reach (communicative)
  –> identity marker (symbolic)
  –> profiling strategy (commercial)

Question 11

ideology of normative monolingualism

Answer 11

notion that the ideal speaker of a language is a monolingual speaker of that language and that this is what we should all aspire to be.
Reflected in statement like:
bilingual speakers are less comptetent speakers oftheur languages than those who grow up monolingualy

Question 12

code-switching

Answer 12

speaker alternate between two or more codes during the same communicative event (can be languages, dialects etc)
–> a natural consequence of language contact

Question 13

monoglossic ideology

Answer 13

belief that languages should be kept seperate in their use–> multilingual discourse is not considered acceptable

Question 14

pluralist ideology/pluralism

Answer 14

belief all ways (or multiple ways) of speaking (and being) are valued

Question 15

multilingual discourse

Answer 15

term used to describe the use of linguistic elements from more than one variety in a conversation or text
Term includes code-switching, crossing etc.

Question 16

intersentential code-switching

Answer 16

one sentence in one language and another sentence in another language

Question 17

intrasentential code-switching

Answer 17

use of more than one language within the same sentence

Question 18

code-switching allows speaker to:

Answer 18

• assert power
• establish authority
• declare solidarity
• get attention
• express humour or anger
• indicate one’s level of education
• express multiple aspects of linguistic identity
• indicate neutrality etc

Question 19

domains

Answer 19

particular settings and the activities associated with those settings (e.g. home, the market, classroom, government docuements etc.)

–> the domain you are in can effect language choice

Question 20

diglossia

Answer 20

situation involving 2 distinct codes/varieties that serve different functions and are used in different domains

High Variety (H)–> used in public life (education, government, legal system etc)

Low variety (L) –> used for private/informal social domains and is learned at home or informal settings

Question 21

accomodation

Answer 21

modifying one’s speech to be more similar or different from the speech of the adressee and hearer

Question 22

convergence

Answer 22

speakers adopt similar ways of speaking
(reduce dissimilarities)

Question 23

divergence

Answer 23

speakers adopt different ways of speaking (emphasise dissimilarities)

Question 24

audience design theory

Answer 24

the way speakers vary the way they speak in response to an audience

Question 25

Markedess Model

Answer 25

analysing different codes in code-switching according to their markedness

Question 26

unmarked choice

Answer 26

expected code in a specific context

Question 27

marked choice

Answer 27

the code that would not normally be expected

Question 28

lingua franca

Answer 28

a language of wider communication a common language used in situations where speakers of different languages interact

Question 29

pidgin

Answer 29

language which develops in a situation of language contact and limited exposure to the target language; a reduced or simplified language that develops as a means of communication between groups that don't share a language - often developed through trade, war, colonialisation or settelement, or labour migration

Question 30

creole

Answer 30

language that develops in contact situations that typically involve more than two languages and is usually assumed to be elaborated and nativised - often developed in context slavery and trans-Atlantic slave trade and connected to plantation economies in the Atlantic and Pacific Islands - is the native and primary language

Question 31

P/c Languages

Answer 31

used when not clear if talking about pidgin or creole. Because it's not always black and white, linguistic systems are dynamic.

Question 31

P/c Languages

Answer 31

used when not clear if talking about pidgin or creole. Because it's not always black and white, linguistic systems are dynamic.

Question 31

P/c Languages

Answer 31

used when not clear if talking about pidgin or creole. Because it's not always black and white, linguistic systems are dynamic.

Question 32

interlanguage

Answer 32

the developing grammar of a second language learner (individual). This is not a target language. It is the still in process of acquiring the target second language

Question 33

superstrate

Answer 33

language of the socially dominant group - usually provides the vocabulary - often speakers of the non-standard varieties of the language--> example: soldiers that provide their variety of their standard language in the area they colonise, which forms the superstrate

Question 34

substrate

Answer 34

languages of the subordinated group - often contributes to the phonology and grammar of the pidgin/creole; also provides some vocabulary

Question 35

lexifier

Answer 35

language that provides the greater portion of the vocabulary; often the superstrate

Question 36

creole continuum

Answer 36

range of varieties that resemble the lexifier language to different degrees can categorise these varieties as followed: - acrolect -mesolect -basolect

Question 37

acrolect

Answer 37

the variety closest to the standard prestige language; intelligible to speakers of the lexifier language

Question 38

mesolect

Answer 38

intermediate variety/varieties between acrolect and basilect

Question 39

basilect

Answer 39

the 'deep' creole which is most removed or distinct from the standard of lexifier variety; unintelligible to speakers of the lexifier language

Question 40

decreolisation

Answer 40

describes a situation in which the standard language which provided the superstrate for the creole languages begins to exert influences on the creole, making it more like the standard

Question 41

bioprogramme hypothesis

Answer 41

- relies on the pidgin-to-creole life cycle model: --> creole is a nativised pidgin --> creoles, contact varieties spoken natively, originate in pidgins, contact varieties spoken non-natively - nativisation is key: when pidgin is acquired as first language by children, it becomes a creole

Question 42

gradualist models/gradualism

Answer 42

it is discourse (use of the pidgin in even more communicative contexts), not nativisation (acquisation of pidgin as an L1 by children) that drives the process of creole formation

Question 43

nativisation

Answer 43

acquisition of the pidgin as a first language by children. Causing the pidgin to be spoken by an entire community, therefore transforming it to a creole

Question 44

substratist view: reflexitation hypothesis

Answer 44

idea that the phonological form of the superstrate language is used while retaining the grammatical patterns of the substrate

Question 45

afrogenesis hypothesis

Answer 45

hypothesis about the origins of creole languages which suggests that Portugese-based pidgins which developed in Africa are the basis of most creole languages

Question 46

mixed language

Answer 46

created by bilinguals, normally i situations of community bilingualism, with major components drawn from each of the languages in a contact situation. The language as a whole however, does not match either source language - no communicative need for a new language since speakers are bilinguals - someone who code-switches between two languages is NOT speaking a mixed language

Question 47

levelling

Answer 47

elimination of differences between varieties over time; may lead to the formation of a new, uniform variety.

Question 48

(linguistic)transfer

Answer 48

learners use features of their first language in the (second) language they are learning