Chapter 4 - Lecture

Question 1

evolutionarily, why does our attention drift?

Answer 1

so we can notice surroundings
- pretty normal
mindfulness = recognize that your attention has shifted, requires some deliberate effort

Question 2

Skinner believed that behaviour should be _

Answer 2

studied and explained in the most direct way possible
*radical behaviourism, very little room for flexibility

Question 3

What are the 3 components of Skinner’s Behaviourism?

Answer 3

1) rely exclusively on directly observable phenomena
2) psychology is considered an objective science
3) analysis of behaviour without appeal to subjective mental events or speculative physiological events

Question 4

describe Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s past

Answer 4

• one of the giants of 20th century psych
• as a child, read a lot and wanted to be a novelist
• showed remarkable mechanical skills, put these skills to good use in devising and constructing the devices he later used in his experiments
• as undergraduate, skinner majored in english
• obtained phd in psych
• recognized as the leading proponent of the behaviouristic position, a position that he continued to develop and defend throughout life

Question 5

skinner’s theory is based on 2 fundamental assumptions:

Answer 5

1) human behaviour follows certain laws
2) causes of behaviour are outside the person, and that these can be observed and studied (contrary to introspection)

Question 6

describe the experimental analysis of behaviour

Answer 6

*allowed for clear way of thinking about cause and effect
manipulated (cause)> measured (effect)
independent variable (cause) > dependent variable (effect)

Question 7

in classical conditioning, responses elicited by a stimulus are labelled as _

Answer 7

respondents
- organism reacts to the environment
- involuntary

Question 8

in operant/instrumental learning, responses simply emitted by an organism are labelled _

Answer 8

operants
- organism acts on the environment
- voluntary (major distinction between IC and CC)

Question 9

most of the important behaviours in which people engage are _. WHat is central are the _ of the behaviours

Answer 9

operant, consequences

Question 10

what happens to frequency of behaviour with positive and negative reinforcement?

Answer 10

frequency of behaviour increases with both

Question 11

how does positive and negative reinforcement increase frequency of behaviour?

Answer 11

Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by adding a desired stimulus, such as food, praise, or money
- negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by removing an aversive (negative) stimulus. ex. dissapointment

Question 12

contrast negative reinforcement and punishment

Answer 12

NR: a procedure that increases the probability of a behaviour
P: involves introducing a negative contingency or terminating a positive (appetitive) one

Question 13

which type of reinforcement is used a lot to keep employees engaged

Answer 13

positive reinforcement
- one of the easiest and quickest ways to improve employee happiness and effectiveness
*although management often points out what’s wrong

Question 14

describe reinforcement schedules

Answer 14

• experimental analysis of behaviour
• dependent variables
• independent variable (the way rewards are administered)

Question 15

list the dependent variables of reinforcement schedules

Answer 15

• acquisition rate (rate at which they are acquiring behaviour)
• rate of responding (rate at which individual shows behaviour)
• extinction rate (how quickly behaviour decreases over time)

Question 16

what are the 3 overarching categories for reinforcement schedules?

Answer 16

• continuous reinforcement schedule
• intermittent reinforcement
• combined schedule

Question 17

define continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 17

every desired response is reinforced

Question 18

define combined schedule

Answer 18

a combination of continuous and intermittent reinforcement

Question 19

define intermittent reinforcement

Answer 19

reinforcement occurs only some of the time

Question 20

within continuous/intermittent reinforcement, we have

Answer 20

• continuous
• fixed ratio
• fixed interval
• random ratio
• random interval
• concurrent

Question 20

give an example of fixed ratio

Answer 20

for every 5th correct response, reinforced

Question 20

give an example of fixed interval

Answer 20

the first correct response is rewarded after a 15 sec lapse

Question 21

give an example of random interval

Answer 21

reinforcement follows a correct response an average of once every 15 secs but at unpredictable times

Question 21

give an example of random ratio

Answer 21

an average of one out of every 5 correct responses is rewarded at random

Question 22

give an example of concurrent schedule

Answer 22

different schedules associated with different behaviours are presented concurrently (multiple behaviours can be rewarded)

Question 23

continuous training is quite common in animal training, describe how it might be used to train dogs

Answer 23

- rewarded with a treat/praise every time it performs the desired behaviour - this immediate and consistent reward helps the dog associate the behaviour of sitting with a positive outcome, reinforcing the likelihood of it being repeated in the future

Question 24

describe the use of fixed ratio in manufacturing/assembly line jobs

Answer 24

- paid based on number of units they produce - ex. for every 100 unites, get paid. Here the fixed ratio is 100 and the reinforcement is delivered after every 100 units produced - this type of schedule encourages workers to maintain a high production rate to reach the fixed ratio

Question 25

describe how fixed interval schedules are used in sales positions

Answer 25

- receive a bonus based on their performance over a fixed interval (ex. month/quarter) - the bonus/reinforcement is delivered after the specified time period has passed - serves as motivator for employees to consistently perform well throughout the interval to get reward

Question 26

describe how random ratio is used in slot machines

Answer 26

ex. could have a schedule of 1:30 - the occurence of winning is unpredictable and can happen at any point within those 30 pulls - randomness + uncertainty = excitement *model for the way social media platforms keep people interested in tasks

Question 27

why can random ratios contribute to the addicitive nature of gambling?

Answer 27

designed to maintain a certain level of variability and uncertainty, which can contribute to the addictive nature of gambling

Question 28

The intermittent and unpredictable nature of the reinforcement schedule can lead to a phenomenon known as _

Answer 28

the "near-miss effect," where players experience a near-win that keeps them motivated to continue playing in the hopes of achieving an actual win

Question 29

describe examples of concurrent schedule being used for loyalty programs

Answer 29

- Option A is a frequent diner program where customers earn a free meal after every 5 visits (fixed ratio) - Option B is a points-based program where customers earn 1 point for every dollar spent, and they can redeem a free meal once month (fixed interval)

Question 30

what is the benefit of concurrent schedules providing a choice of different schedules?

Answer 30

**the schedule allows customers to make a choice based on preferences and behaviours - autonomy = feel good

Question 31

What does a graphical representation of variable ratio look like?

Answer 31

staight line angled upward *steepest slope out of all

Question 32

What does a graphical representation of fixed ratio look like?

Answer 32

- less sloped line than VR - zigzag pattern, goes up, levels out, goes up

Question 33

What does a graphical representation of variable interval look like?

Answer 33

- straight line like VR but less steep slope

Question 34

What does a graphical representation of fixed interval look like?

Answer 34

scalloped - when slope is 0, animal is resting - ex. after every 15 seconds, treat - will stop working as soon as they get a treat

Question 35

which schedules are more resistant to extinction?

Answer 35

variable

Question 36

define magazine training

Answer 36

A foundational behavioural training technique used in operant conditioning, particularly when studying animal learning - The term "magazine" refers to a food delivery system in an operant conditioning chamber (aka "Skinnerbox")

Question 37

describe exposure to the food magazine

Answer 37

The rat is placed in the operant conditioning chamber, and food pellets are dispensed at random intervals into the food tray (the "magazine") - during this time, the rat learns to associate the sound or light (or both presented at the same time) with the availability of food in the tray

Question 38

describe establishing the cue-response association in magazine training

Answer 38

Through repeated exposure, the rat begins to connect the cues with food delivery and learns to approach the magazine (food tray) whenever it hears the cue(s)

Question 39

what 3 effects do we see on extinction?

Answer 39

- extinction rate - the amount of time that passes before the organism stops responding after the withdrawal of reinforcement - continuous schedule = rapid extinction - fixed schedule extinction>variable schedule extinction

Question 40

OCD symptoms can be classified into partially distinct but also overlapping subtypes based on their presentation : name the 4 signs

Answer 40

1. contamination fears and compulsive cleaning 2. obsessive thoughts about causing harm and compulsive checking rituals 3. obsessions with symmetry and compulsive ordering 4. obsessions with collecting useless objects and compulsive hoarding

Question 41

Brain circuits in the pathophysiology of OCD could be related to _

Answer 41

reward- and motivational- related processes, executive function, motor and response inhibition, and habit-based behaviour

Question 42

what may underpin symptoms in OCD?

Answer 42

Dysfunction in cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits may underpin symptoms; and shed light on the possible neurochemistry within these loops such as the role of serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate systems

Question 43

OCD symptom provocation is linked to_

Answer 43

increased activation of the Orbitofrontal Cortex and Striatum, including the Caudate

Question 44

describe the effects of schedules on rate of responding

Answer 44

random ratio - rate of responding is fairly high fixed interval - rate of responding drops off when reward is obtained

Question 45

describe the premack principle

Answer 45

Reinforcers can be activities, or responses, rather than only stimuli -more preferred activities can be reinforced with less preferred activities - What David Premack understood is that pleasant tasks are reinforcing tasks, and when we put reinforcing tasks after something, we get more of that something

Question 46

describe how you can use the premack principle for convincing child to do homework before video games

Answer 46

identify the desired behaviour (homework) identify the preferred activity (video games) Application of the premack principle (parents set rule tha hw needs to be done before video games) Outcome (child motivated to do homework because it leads to video games

Question 47

in the attention economy, attention is a _

Answer 47

commodity - In the attention economy, attention itself becomes a commodity - companies aim to capture and hold individuals' attention for as long as possible, often using various strategies

Question 48

describe how the attention economy benefits from attention

Answer 48

monetization - The longer a company can keep someone's attention, the more opportunities there are for monetization ex. social media platforms can show more advertisements to users who spend more time on their platform

Question 49

The algorithm on TikTok is designed to personalize the user experience by _

Answer 49

recommending videos based on individual preferences and engagement history

Question 50

How does the schedule of reinforcement and personalization impact tiktok users?

Answer 50

This algorithmic personalization creates a sense of novelty and excitement as users are constantly exposed to new and engaging content - The random interval schedule of reinforcement, as discussed earlier, adds to this addictive nature by keeping users engaged and motivated to continue scrolling through the app

Question 51

what buisness mentioned in class are related to novelty

Answer 51

dopamine labs - produce a code that triggers neurological response in audience - trying to cause a rush of dopamine in the brain's reward center that you basically can't help but want to experience repeatedly

Question 52

what did tristan harris) ted talk video) talk about?

Answer 52

- a design thinker and former ethicist at Google, points to how smart phones changed our contract with advertisers, and our relationship with reality. - rather than being presented with choices as a consumer, software engineers at companies like Facebook leverage deep psychology to make their products addictive - The longer and more often sites and apps can hold your attention, the more they can make in advertising revenue. This is the attention economy—and it's why the average person checks their phone 150 times each day

Question 53

list the 6 problematic social media use components

Answer 53

1) salience 2) mood modification 3) tolerance 4) withdrawal symptoms 5) conflict 6) relapse

Question 54

define salience

Answer 54

the domination of social networking as the single most important aspect of the person's life

Question 55

define mood modification

Answer 55

an arousing "buzz" or "high" when participating in social media for the purpose of "escape" or "numbing"

Question 56

define tolerance

Answer 56

the presence of a gradual increase of time spend on social networking sites

Question 57

define withdrawal symptoms

Answer 57

unpleasant affective states or physical effects when the person is unable to engage in social networking

Question 58

define conflict

Answer 58

tendion between social networking and other important activities in the individual's life, ie. hobbies, interests etc.

Question 59

define relapse

Answer 59

the tendency to revert to repeated patterns of excessive social networking after period of control

Question 60

describe skinner's contributions

Answer 60

Probably Skinner’s greatest contribution to the understanding of human behaviour is his description of the effects of reinforcement on responding - his theory has also been applied directly in many areas: drugs, addictions, choice behaviour, gambling, memory, reasoning, instructional programs, and therapies

Question 61

describe some philosophical objections relating to Skinner

Answer 61

Says little about other topics of interest to contemporary cognitive theorists (i.e., decision making, problem solving, perception, etc.) - Neglected the role of biology in learning