The First Three Wars
King William’s War (1689–1697) & Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713): Britain tried to capture Quebec, failed; Native allies of France burned British settlements.
Britain gained Nova Scotia & trading rights in Spanish America after Queen Anne’s War.
King George’s War (1744–1748): New Englanders captured Louisbourg (Cape Breton) but Britain returned it to France in exchange for gains in India → colonists were furious.
Albany Plan of Union (1754)
Benjamin Franklin proposed unified colonial government for defense and taxes.
Colonies rejected plan fearing loss of autonomy, but set precedent for later revolutionary congresses.
British Victory
William Pitt focused on conquering Canada.
Key victories: retake of Louisbourg (1758), Quebec (1759), Montreal (1760).
Peace of Paris (1763): Britain gained Canada & Florida; France ceded Louisiana to Spain.
Britain dominated North America; French power ended.
Immediate Effects
British: Colonies poorly trained, uncooperative; low opinion of colonial military.
Colonists: Proud of performance, confident in self-defense, skeptical of British leadership.
Britain ended policy of salutary neglect; sought colonies to pay for defense costs.
Boston Massacre (1770)
Colonists harassed British soldiers → 5 killed, including Crispus Attucks.
John Adams defended soldiers; Samuel Adams used event to inflame anti-British sentiment.
Gaspee Incident (1772)
Colonists destroyed British customs ship in Rhode Island.
Highlighted growing defiance and willingness to resist imperial authority.
Boston Tea Party (1773)
Protest against Tea Act (taxed British East India Company tea).
Colonists dumped 342 chests of tea into harbor → symbol of resistance, angered British.
Intolerable (Coercive) Acts (1774)
Punishment for Boston Tea Party:
Port Act → closed Boston Harbor.
Massachusetts Government Act → reduced legislature power.
Administration of Justice Act → trials for officials could occur in Britain.
Expanded Quartering Act → troops in private homes.
Quebec Act → recognized Catholicism in Canada, extended boundaries → angered colonists.
Philosophical Foundations
Enlightenment ideas (Locke, Rousseau, Deism) influenced leaders like Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, Adams.
Emphasis on reason, human rights, natural law → justified rebellion and creation of republican government.
What was the First Continental Congress and why was it called?
Called in September 1774 in Philadelphia (all colonies except Georgia).
Purpose: respond to Britain’s Intolerable Acts, protect colonial liberties.
Most Americans still did not want independence—wanted to restore pre-Seven Years’ War relations with Britain.
Who were the delegates to the First Continental Congress?
Radicals: Patrick Henry (VA), Samuel Adams & John Adams (MA) → wanted major concessions.
Moderates: George Washington (VA), John Dickinson (PA) → sought compromise.
Conservatives: John Jay (NY), Joseph Galloway (PA) → favored mild protest.
Loyalists were not represented.
What actions did the First Continental Congress take?
Rejected Galloway’s plan for colonial union.
Adopted:
Suffolk Resolves → called for repeal of Intolerable Acts, military prep, boycotts.
Declaration and Resolves → petitioned king to fix grievances, recognized Parliament’s commerce authority.
Continental Association → committees to enforce economic sanctions.
Vowed to reconvene in May 1775 if rights not recognized.
How did fighting begin in the American Revolution?
King’s refusal to address Congress led to clashes.
Lexington & Concord (April 1775):
British tried to seize colonial arms; warned by Paul Revere & William Dawes.
Skirmish at Lexington: 8 Americans killed.
Retreating British were attacked at Concord by hundreds of militiamen → 250 British casualties.
What happened at the Battle of Bunker Hill?
June 17, 1775, outside Boston (fought at Breed’s Hill).
British took the hill but suffered 1,000+ casualties.
Colonists claimed a moral victory, showing they could inflict heavy losses.
What was the Second Continental Congress and its military actions?
Met May 1775, divided between independence supporters (New England) and moderates (middle colonies).
Actions:
Declaration of Causes & Necessities for Taking Up Arms.
Created colonial army → George Washington as commander-in-chief.
Authorized Benedict Arnold’s raid on Quebec.
Organized navy & marine corps.
What peace efforts did the Congress attempt?
Olive Branch Petition (July 1775) → pledged loyalty to King George III, requested protection of colonial rights.
King refused → Parliament passed Prohibitory Act (August 1775), declaring colonies in rebellion and forbidding trade.
How did Thomas Paine influence the independence movement?
Published Common Sense (Jan 1776).
Argued colonies should break all ties with Britain; unjust for a continent to be ruled by a distant island.
Widely popular → swayed public opinion toward independence
How was the Declaration of Independence created and adopted?
June 7, 1776 → Richard Henry Lee proposed independence.
Committee of 5 including Thomas Jefferson drafted the declaration.
July 2 → Congress voted for independence.
July 4 → Jefferson’s Declaration adopted, listing grievances and principles: life, liberty, pursuit of happiness.
Who participated in the Revolutionary War?
Patriots: ~40% of population, mostly New England & Virginia, militia service was temporary.
African Americans: ~5,000 fought, initially barred but later allowed to join.
Loyalists/Tories: ~20-30%, supported Britain, often wealthier & conservative.
American Indians: Some sided with Britain to protect lands.
What hardships did the Patriots face initially?
Poorly trained & equipped army; short supplies & pay.
Lost New York & Philadelphia.
Winter at Valley Forge (1777–1778).
Economic troubles → trade declined 95%, paper money worthless.
How did the alliance with France impact the war?
Victory at Saratoga (1777) → convinced France to ally openly in 1778.
Spain & Holland joined later.
French aid widened the war → forced Britain to divert resources.
How did the Revolutionary War end?
Southern campaign by Britain; Loyalists active.
Last major battle: Yorktown (1781) → Washington + French forces forced Cornwallis to surrender.
Treaty of Paris (1783): U.S. recognized as independent; Mississippi River western boundary; fishing rights; debts & Loyalist claims honored.
How were new governments organized after independence?
States wrote constitutions (1777 onward), balancing conservative & liberal interests.
Common features:
Bill/List of Rights
Separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial)
Voting: white male property owners
Office-holding: higher property requirement
What were the Articles of Confederation and their features?
Drafted by John Dickinson, adopted 1777, ratified 1781.
Structure: one-house Congress, one vote per state; 9/13 to pass laws, unanimous to amend.
Powers: war, treaties, diplomacy, borrow money.
Weakness: could not tax, regulate commerce, enforce laws.
Achievements: won war, Land Ordinance (1785), Northwest Ordinance (1787).
